OF  CALIFORNIA 
ANGELES 


c. 


/ 

X  * 

*t**4 


/" ^N   . 


THE 


TEACHER'S  MANUAL; 


CONTAINING  A  TREATISE  UPON 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL, 


AND  OTHER  PAPERS  UPON 


THE  TEACHEE'S  QUALIFICATIONS  AND  WOKK. 


BY 

HIRAM  ORCUTT,  M.A., 

PRINCIPAL  OF  TII.DEN  IiADIES*  SEMINARY. 


"  Discipline  la  the  great  educational  process." 


BOSTON: 
THOMPSON,   BIGELOW,   &  BROWN, 

25  &  29  CORNHILL. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1871, 

BY  THOMPSON,  BIGELOW  &  BROWN, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Boston : 
Stereotyped  and  Printed  by  Sand,  Avery,  &  Frye. 


Jwuoation 
library 

LB 
3011 


TO 

THE  ONE  HUNDRED  THOUSAND  LADY  TEACHERS 

IN   THE  UNITED  STATES 

TO    WHOM 

HAVE  BEEN  INTRUSTED  THE  MANAGEMENT  AND  INSTRUCTION 
OF  TWO-THIRDS  OF  ALL  OCR  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS, 

(Efjts  Ufllume, 

WHICH  WAS  WRITTEN  FOR  THE  AID  AND  ENCOURAGEMENT  OF 
ALL  WHO   TOIL  IN  THE   SCHOOLROOM, 

IS    RESPECTFULLY    DEDICATED 

BY  THEIR  FRIEND, 

THE    AUTHOR. 


PREFACE. 


THIBTEEN  years  ago,  the  Author  published  his 
"  Gleanings  from  School-Life  Experience,"  which 
has  passed  through  several  editions,  and  the  last 
one  is  now  exhausted.  That  little  book  was  sold 
and  read  in  nearly  every  State  in  the  Union. 

The  present  work  is  the  result  of  a  longer  ex- 
perience in  the  schoolroom  (now  some  thirty-five 
years),  and  presents  the  subjects  discussed  more 
fully  and  in  a  different  form.  Yet,  like  its  prede- 
cessor, this  book  claims  to  be  eminently  practical. 

The  treatise  upon  "  The  Discipline  of  the 
School,"  which  comprises  the  opening  chapter 
and  larger  portion  of  the  work,  covers  the  whole 
ground  of  school-keeping,  and  furnishes  the  young 
teacher  with  practical  suggestions  upon  every 
topic  that  will  be  likely  to  occupy  his  attention. 
It  treats  upon  all  the  disciplinary  agencies  to  be 


PREFACE. 

employed  in  the  successful  management,  govern- 
ment, and  instruction  of  the  public  school. 

The  other  chapters,  so  far  as  they  are  repro- 
duced from  the  former  treatise,  have  been  re- 
written, and  will,  it  is  believed,  be  found  both 
practical  and  profitable  to  all  who  aim  to  rise  in 
their  profession. 

The  mathematical  chapter  (it  will  be  sufficient 
to  say)  was  prepared  by  EPHRAIM  KNIGHT,  M.A., 
Teacher  of  Mathematics  in  the  New-London  In- 
stitution, New  London,  N.H.,  who  has  earned  an 
enviable  reputation  as  a  teacher  in  that  depart- 
ment. 

TU.DEN  SEMINARY, 
WEST  LEBANON,  N.H.,  November,  1871. 


CONTENTS. 


i. 

THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL  , 


XL 

THE  DIGNITY  OF  THE  TEACHER'S  WOBX  .....  .....184 

m. 

THE  TEACHER'S  QUALIFICATIONS.  .............  196 

IV. 
CONCLUDING  RBMAPIMI  TO  TEACHEBB  ............  SIT 


V. 

COMMON  SCHOOLS  —  THETC  HISTORY  AND  IMFOBTAHOB  ...  234 

VL 
RULES  FOB  THE  DIVISIBILITY  OF  NUMBERS  .........  360 

7 


TEACHER'S    MANUAL. 


I. 

THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  TEE  SCHOOL 

"  y\ISCIPLINE  is  not  the  art  of  re- 
-•— warding  and  punishing,  of  mak- 
ing pupils  speak  and  be  silent :  it  is  the 
art  of  making  them  perform,  in  the  most 
appropriate,  easy,  and  useful  manner, 
all  the  duties  of  the  school." 

School  discipline  cannot,  therefore,  be 
confined  to  the  government  of  a  school, 
but  applies  equally  to  management  and 
instruction.  Schoolmaster,  schoolmis- 
tress, or  school-teacher  does  not  fully 
describe  the  person  who  educates  our 


10  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

children.  He  is  a  school  disciplinarian. 
In  other  words,  a  good  disciplinarian 
must  be  a  good  teacher;  for  correct 
teaching  is  one  mode  of  discipline.  And 
for  the  same  reason,  a  good  teacher  is  a 
good  disciplinarian.  Nor  can  good  dis- 
cipline or  instruction  be  found  in  the 
school  that  is  not  managed  with  ability 
and  skill. 

It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  call  into 
activity  the  observation,  industry,  love 
of  learning,  capacity  for  independent 
action  and  self-control,  of  his  pupils;  to 
rouse  and  direct  all  their  faculties;  to 
discipline  them  outwardly  and  inwardly ; 
to  secure  order,  propriety,  morality,  good 
manners,  obedience,  regularity  in  com- 
ing, going,  standing,  sitting,  and  in  pre- 
paring and  reciting  their  lessons.  This  is 
the  work  of  school  discipline  ;  and  these, 
if  accomplished,  are  the  results  of  man- 
aging, governing,  teaching. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  TEE  SCHOOL.         11 

From  this  stand-point,  our  subject,  ex- 
pands, and  assumes  a  vast  importance. 
Indeed,  lack  of  discipline  is  a  radical, 
ruinous  defect  in  any  school,  and  in  a 
large  majority  of  the  public  schools  in 
every  community. 

I  shall  aim,  in  the  following  pages,  at  a 
practical  presentation  of  my  subject. 
Teachers  in  search  of  professional  knowl- 
edge do  not  read  patiently  the  discus- 
sion of  mere  theories.  They  want  prin- 
ciples and  facts  gleaned  from  the  practi- 
cal life-work  of  the  schoolroom. 

It  has  been  my  good  fortune,  during 
the  last  thirty-five  years,  to  have  "  seen 
service"  in  every  grade  of  school,  and 
under  varied  and  complicated  circum- 
stances. I  have  been  compelled,  in  these 
relations,  to  study  human  nature,  and  to 
observe  the  working  of  different  systems 
of  school  government,  and  all  the  meth- 
ods and  appliances  usually  adopted  for 


12  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

the,  accomplishment  of  the  desired  ob- 
ject. 

I  may  therefore,  perhaps,  without  pre- 
sumption, view  the  subject  from  my  own 
stand-point,  and,  in  a  measure,  in  the 
light  of  my  own  experience. 

Discipline  is  itself  the  great  edu- 
cational process.  The  well  disciplined 
alone  are  well  educated.  It  is  the  teach- 
er's chief  business,  therefore,  to  disci- 
pline his  pupils.  He  cannot  "add  to  their 
stature  one  cubit,"  nor  to  their  mental 
or  moral  capacity  one  new  power ;  but 
he  can  bring  them  under  such  a  process 
of  training  as  will  subdue  their  wild  and 
untamed  impulses,  develop  the  latent 
energies  of  body,  mind,  and  soul,  and 
direct  them  to  a  course  of  right  action, 
so  that  the  future  citizen  and  lawgiver 
may  be  fitted  for  his  great  work  and 
high  destiny. 

School    discipline    has    reference    to 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         13 

all  the  regulations  and  prohibitions,  re- 
straints and  stimulants,  which  are  "calcu- 
lated to  regulate  the  habits  of  study  and 
deportment,  through  the  interesting  and 
important  period  of  school  life. 

The  object  to  be  secured  is  twofold ; 
viz.,  school  vices  must  be  prevented  or 
cured,  and  school  virtues  must  be  cul- 
tivated. 

Among  the  school  vices,  as  they  have 
been  classified,  are  idleness,  whispering, 
disorderly  movements  in  the  school- 
room, injury  to  property,  and  rudeness 
of  speech,  or  act,  in  the  intercourse  of 
every-day  life. 

The  school  virtues  to  be  cultivated 
are  suggested  as  the  opposites  of  these; 
viz.,  regularity  of  attendance,  prompt- 
ness, obedience,  truthfulness,  earnest- 
ness, diligence,  kindness,  neatness,  and 
thoroughness  in  the  preparation  and 
recitation  of  lessons. 


14  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

And  these  are  to  be  secured  not  only 
to  promote  the  business  of  the  school- 
room, but  also  for  their  influence  in 
forming  habits  and  character. 

I  do  not  propose  here  to  lay  down  a 
series  of  fixed  rules  by  which  all  teach- 
ers must  be  governed,  in  the  manage- 
ment of  their  schools.  No  one  is  safe 
who  attempts  to  treat  every  case  by  a 
specific  rule.  Yet  every  act  of  disci- 
pline is  subject  to  fixed  principles  which 
underlie  and  regulate  the  circumstances 
attending  it.  And  the  judicious  teacher 
will  adhere  to  the  principle,  while  he 
varies  the  means  and  appliances  to  suit 
the  circumstances  of  the  case. 

I  will  now  call  the  attention  of  the 
readers  of  this  Manual,  to  the  discipli- 
nary agencies  to  be  employed  in  the 
successful  management,  government,  and 
instruction  of  a  school. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         15 

I. — THOROUGH  ORGANIZATION  AND  CLASSIFICATION. 

I  have  seen  the  school  in  operation,  so 
perfectly  systematized,  all  its  arrange- 
ments so  complete,  and  its  departments 
so  perfectly  adjusted,  that  the  working  of 
its  machinery  not  only  produced  no 
friction,  but  created  order,  interest,  and 
zeal,  such  as  secured  the  desired  object. 
I  have  seen  these  arrangements  so  per-, 
feet,  as  not  only  to  prevent  general  dis- 
order, but  to  punish  wrong,  without  the 
agency  of  the  teacher. 

And,  on  the  other  hand,  I  have  often 
witnessed  the  utter  failure  of  apparently 
competent  masters  for  the  want  of  sys- 
tem in  the  arrangement  and  classifica- 
tion of  their  schools. 

Organization  is  the  first  business  of 
the  schoolroom ;  and  nothing  else  should 
be  attempted  until  this  is  completely 
accomplished. 


16  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

The  pupils  should  be  so  arranged  upon 
their  seats,  that  they  will  present  to  the 
eye  of  a  visitor  system  and  uniformity, 
and  will  not  disturb  each  other  in  the 
necessary  movements  of  the  day.  The 
rogues  should  be  separated,  and  every 
temptation  to  idleness  and  mischief  re- 
moved. 

Irregularities  must  be  provided  for. 
.They  will  occur  in  every  school,,  and 
hence  should  be  reduced  to  system  and 
made  disciplinary.  Recesses  should  be 
at  regular  intervals,  when  one  division  of 
the  school,  male  or  female,  may  be  ex- 
cused for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  to  take 
the  open  air,  and  then  the  other  division 
in  its  turn.  The  time  of  recess  in  the 
schoolroom  may  be  spent  by  the  teach- 
er in  attending  to  individual  wants  and 
rendering  individual  assistance.  It  is  a 
suitable  time  also  for  the  practice  of 
school  gymnastics,  which  will,  ere  long, 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         17 

be  required  in  all  our  schools,  both  for 
recreation  and  development. 

There  should  also  be  an  occasional 
recess  from  study,  say  for  two  minutes, 
in  which  pupils  may  whisper,  ask  ques- 
tions, and  attend  to  any  necessary  irreg- 
ularities not  allowed  at  other  times. 

No  general  disorder  should  be  toler- 
ated, even  at  such  recesses ;  no  loud  talk- 
ing, or  leaving  of  seats,  without  permis- 
sion ;  but  special  attention  should  be  giv- 
en to  those  disturbing  habits  which  can- 
not be  avoided  in  the  schoolroom.  In 
this  way  the  last  excuse  is  removed  for 
indulgence  during  the  quiet  hours  of 
study  and  recitation.  The  teacher  can 
now  insist  upon  perfect  order  while  or- 
der is  the  law. 

In  classification,  great  pains  should  be 
taken  to  have  as  few  classes  as  possible, 
and  to  have  each  pupil  assigned  to  his 
appropriate  sphere,  where  he  will  work 


18  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

easily  and  successfully,  with  his  time 
fully  occupied;  and  to  have  each  class 
control  its  own  specific  time  and  place  of 
recitation,  without  change  or  interrup- 
tion. 

The  school,  when  thoroughly  organized 
and  classified,  still  needs  the  vigilant 
care  of  the  master,  lest  its  machinery 
become  disarranged  and  work  mischief. 
The  order  and  system  thus  secured  will 
be  everywhere  felt  and  appreciated. 

2 — THE  NEXT  NECESSITT  OF  THE  SCHOOL  is  LAW. 

"  Order  is  Heaven's  first  law,"  and  this 
order  is  the  result  of  law.  Indeed,  law 
is  the  ruling  agency  in  the  universe  of 
God.  It  controls  planets  and  suns,  and 
holds  in  subjection  the  very  particles  of 
which  they  are  composed.  "Withdraw 
this  controlling  principle  from  the  ma- 
terial world,  and  anarchy,  confusion,  and 
chaos  would  result. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         19 

Law  is  also  a  necessity  in  all  organized 
society.  Man,  as  a  social  being,  could 
not  exist  without  it.  And  so,  in  every 
community  and  among  every  class  of 
men,  from  barbarism  to  the  highest  grade 
of  civilization,  we  find  a  code  of  laws 
for  the  regulation  and  control  of  indi- 
viduals in  their  social  capacity.  Hence, 
we  have  civil  government,  family  gov- 
ernment, school  government,  each  an 
absolute  necessity  for  the  existence  of 
human  beings  in  these  various  relations. 

And  above  all  and  over  all,  the  su- 
preme law  of  God  bears  sway. 

In  the  material  world,  these  laws  are 
so  definite  and  exact  as  to  control  the 
smallest  particle  that  floats  in  the  sun- 
beam, and  so  comprehensive  as  to  em- 
brace worlds  and  systems  of  worlds  that 
roll  in  infinite  space. 

So  human  law  must  be  definite  and 
comprehensive.  And  to  be  obeyed,  it 


20  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

must  be  understood  by  every  child,  pupil, 
and  citizen. 

In  the  government  of  the  school,  the 
regulations  necessary  to  secure  order 
and  proper  discipline  must  not  only  .be 
fixed  and  uniform,  but  fully  made  known 
to  every  pupil,  that  there  may  be  con- 
cert of  action,  and  a  harmonious  work- 
ing of  all  its  members. 

It  will  not  do  to  trust  a  matter  of  so 
much  importance  to  the  good  sense  and 
good  intentions  of  pupils,  however  much 
we  may  confide  in  them.  It  will  not  do 
to  allow  each  to  be  "  a  law  unto  him- 
self," and  to  act  alone  upon  his  own 
responsibility.  Every  experienced  teach- 
er knows  how  utterly  impracticable  such 
a  theory  is.  And  every  one  should  take 
an  early  opportunity  to  announce  and 
explain  the  principles  and  facts  upon 
which  the  school  is  to  be  governed.  And 
these  necessary  school  laws  must  be 
strict,  and  promptly  enforced. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF   THE  SCHOOL.         21 

Says  a  practical  teacher  on  this  point, 
"  A  system  of  discipline  ought  to  ac- 
complish completely  the  object  it  aims 
at.  It  should  have  no  rules  that  have 
not  been  well  considered  beforehand. 
It  should  then  admit  of  no  exceptions, 
but  for  the  most  imperative  reasons.  Let 
down  the  bars  to-day,  and  the  scholars 
will  leap  the  fences  to-morrow,  and  snap 
their  fingers  at  all  barriers  the  day  after. 

The  system,  while  it  lasts,  must  be  in- 
flexible, earnest,  strong,  thorough.  It  is 
much  easier  to  govern  perfectly  than  par- 
tially, to  say  nothing  of  the  clear  gain  in 
temper  and  comfort. 

If  an  evil  ought  to  be  prevented,  let 
the  teacher  deliberate  and  then  prevent 
it.  He  can,  if  he  will.  He  must  be 
patient,  but  determined.  If  any  posi- 
tive advancement  is  to  be  made,  the 
matter  should  be  well  considered ;  then 
let  the  teacher  will  and  act  like  a  Napo- 


22  TEACHER 'S  MANUAL. 

leon."  [The  writer,  in  this  quotation, 
could  not  be  understood  to  refer  to  Na- 
poleon III.,  but  Napoleon  I.] 

Again,  the  pupil  must  be  taught  and 
made  to  believe  that  all  school  regula- 
tions and  laws  are  based  upon  authority, 
—  authority  vested  in  the  office  of  the 
teacher,  which  is  his  not  to  withhold,  but 
to  execute. 

This  is  the  very  germ  and  the  only 
foundation  of  good  government.  Let  it 
be  distinctly  understood  that  persuasion 
may  never  take  the  place  of  authority. 
In  school  management,  as  a  means  of 
preventing  evil,  we  may  persuade,  invite, 
and  win ;  we  may  allure  by  kind  treat- 
ment, at  any  tune,  when  the  necessity  of 
subordination  is  not  questioned  by  the 
pupil,  or  after  he  has  been  subdued  by 
authority. 

But  kindness  cannot  supply  the  place 
of  authority.  Obedience  is  not  a  volun- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         23 

tary  compliance  with  a  request,  but  a 
hearty  response  to  acknowledged  author- 
ity,— an  implicit  yielding  to  a  command. 
The  pupil  must  not  wait  the  dictates  of 
inclination  or  feeling  before  he  yields, 
but  promptly  obey. 

In  the  words  of  another,  "  This  is  a 
government,  not  of  persuasion,  not  of 
reasons  assigned,  not  of  the  will  of  a 
majority,  but  of  one  master.  From  his 
decision  there  may  be  an  appeal,  but 
disobedience  never" 

"  But  may  not  the  master  be  unreas- 
onable and  unjust  in  his  requisitions  ? 
And  if  so,  may  not  the  pupil  refuse  to 
obey  ?  "  I  answer,  No.  Obedience  even 
to  an  unjust  command  is  better  than  dis- 
obedience ;  for  the  right  to  disobey,  in 
any  instance,  disarms  authority,  and 
leaves  the  master  powerless.  Who  may 
decide  what  is  right  and  proper  ?  May 
the  rebuked  or  chastised  pupil  pronounce 


24  TEACHER'S  MANUAL.       • 

the  law  unjust  ?  Then  the  government 
of  the  school  is  in  the  hands  of  the  reck- 
less. No  rebel  approves  of  the  laws  he 
has  violated ;  and,  if  he  may  disobey  at 
discretion,  all  power  to  govern  is  over- 
come. Lawlessness  and  anarchy  pre- 
vail. There  is  no  remedy  for  this  state 
of  things,  but  to  demand  unqualified 
obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  school.  If 
injustice  has  been  done,  the  pupil  may 
appeal  to  higher  authority,  and  have  the 
case  faithfully  reviewed.  This  position 
should  be  taken  and  maintained  in  every 
public  school,  academy,  seminary,  and 
college  in  the  land.  No  discipline  can 
be  maintained  on  any  other  principle. 

But  some  substitute  persuasion  for 
authority,  and  claim  no  right  to  enforce 
submission.  They  would  persuade  the 
rebel  to  regard  their  wishes,  or  purchase 
his  obedience  to  law.  Sugar-plums, 
money,  or  any  other  desired  indulgence, 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         25 

is  offered  and  given  on  condition  of 
obedience.  Now,  mark  the  effect  of  such 
discipline  upon  the  child.  Who  conquers 
and  rule's  in  this  instance  ?  The  child, 
and  not  the  master. 

And  he  soon  learns  that  disobedience 
is  the  best  currency  at  his  command, 
to  purchase  the  desired  reward.  And 
hence  his  stubbornness  becomes  more 
persistent,  and  his  impudence  more  in- 
tolerable, as  he  desires  the  greater  indul- 
gence. Insubordination  becomes  a  habit ; 
and  he  soon  loses  all  respect  for  authority 
and  those  who  exercise  it  over  him,  and 
grows  up  in  reckless  disregard  of  the 
laws  of  the  family,  the  school,  the  State, 
and  of  high  Heaven. 

The  present  is  an  age  of  insubordina- 
tion. We  have  fearful  illustrations  of 
this  fact  in  the  frequent  outbreak  of  the 
rebellious  spirit  in  our  public  schools, 
academies,  and  colleges,  as  we  have  had 


2(5  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

in  the  great  Rebellion  that  deluged  our 
country  in  fraternal  blood,  and  consumed 
the  wealth  of  the  nation. 

In  the  town  of  Canton,  Mass.,  in  the 
summer  of  1870,  four  boys,  from  nine  to 
eleven  years  old,  who  had  rebelled 
against  the  authority  of  the  school, 
afterwards  assaulted  the  teacher  on  her 
way  to  her  boarding-place,  and  actually 
stoned  her  to  death  !  In  the  winter  of 
1871,  Curtis  A.  Wood,  a  school-teacher 
in  District  No.  2,  in  Dudley,  Mass.,  at- 
tempted to  subdue  Erlow  Kiblin,  in  re- 
bellion in  his  schoolroom.  The  next 
morning  he  was  brutally  assaulted,  by 
said  Kiblin  and  his  brother,  on  his  way 
to  school.  Fearless  and  defiant  rebel- 
lions are  common  occurrences  in  our 
academies  and  colleges ;  and  in  some  in- 
stances, within  a  few  years,  they  have 
assumed  so  much  importance  as  to 
threaten  the  very  existence  of  the  insti- 
tutions. 


TEE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         27 

If  these  children  and  youth  had  been 
properly  trained  under  law,  and  the 
authority  rightfully  vested  in  their 
parents  and  masters,  would  such  fearful 
and  disgraceful  scenes  have  been  wit- 
nessed, and  such  crimes  committed  ? 
Surely  not.  Then  lack  of  discipline  is 
an  evil  to  be  deplored  and  corrected. 

School  law  has  its  disciplinary  power 
and  influence  while  yet  unbroken,  and 
when  no  penalties  appear.  As  gravita- 
tion, which  controls  and  directs  planets 
and  suns  in  their  orbits,  is  as  really 
demonstrated  while  they  move  on  in 
undisturbed  harmony  in  their  wonted 
course,  as  it  would  be  if  one  of  these 
planets  which  had  left  its  beaten  track 
should,  under  the  discipline  of  law,  be 
restored  to  its  accustomed  sphere. 

Indeed,  the  very  object  of  school  law 
is  to  prevent  and  not  to  punish  evil. 
The  necessity  of  punishment  as  often 


28  TEACHER'S  MANUAL 

results  from  the  absence  of  rigid  authori- 
ty, as  from  any  other  cause. 

Pupils  must  be  subject  to  the  laws  of 
the  school  at  all  times  and  everywhere,  — 
in  the  schoolroom,  by  the  way,  and  at 
their  homes.  I  assume  it  as  an  axiom, 
that,  so  far  as  the  pupil's  conduct  can 
affect  the  welfare  of  the  school,  he 
should  be  under  the  control  of  the  mas- 
ter. Parents  should  co-operate  with 
the  teacher  in  enforcing  school  laws ; 
but,  if  they  fail  to  do  this,  the  teacher 
should  enforce  them  by  his  own  authori- 
ty, whenever  and  wherever  the  good  of 
the  school  requires. 

And  to  enable  him  to  retain  this  pow- 
er, without  question,  he  should  never 
dismiss  his  pupils  from  the  opening  of 
the  term  until  its  close.  He  may  ex- 
cuse them  for  recess  for  a  few  moments, 
for  an  hour,  for  a  night,  for  a  day  or 
two,  as  the  case  may  be,  but  not  dismiss 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         29 

them.  He  can,  in  this  way,  hold  them 
under  his  authority  and  control  their 
actions  during  the  hours  of  recreation, 
as  well  as  when  they  are  employed  in 
study  and  recitation.  This  control  is 
as  important  in  the  one  case  as  in  the 
other ;  and  that  master  who  is  deprived 
of  the  right  in  question  has  no  longer 
the  power  to  govern  his  school. 

3.  —  ANOTHER   IMPORTANT    AGENCY   IN    SCHOOL, 
DISCIPLINE  is  WORK. 

Work  is  equally  important  both  for 
master  and  pupils.  Indolence  in  him 
begets  idleness  and  recklessness  in  them. 
Life,  energy,  and  industry  manifested  by 
him  will  be  at  once  reproduced  in  them. 

The  teacher  must  work  to  fit  himself 
for  his  high  calling,  and  to  elevate 
his  profession.  He  must  work  for  his 
school,  —  to  interest  and  benefit  his 
patrons,  to  rouse  and  inspire  his  pupils, 


30  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

and  to  prepare  himself  for  his  daily 
teaching.  Indeed,  the  true  teacher  is 
always  reading,  thinking,  or  acting  for 
his  school.  He  has  no  other  business 
on  hand,  and  no  other  object  in  view, 
but  to  perfect  himself  in  the  art,  and  to 
earn  success  in  practical  teaching. 

The  good  teacher  also  manages  to 
make  his  pupils  work. 

Study  and  recitation  are  their  only 
.business  in  the  schoolroom.  But,  in 
a  well-governed  school,  it  is  not  often 
necessary  to  enforce  industry.  Children 
and  youth  naturally  love  work.  Among 
the  thousands  in  our  families  and  public 
schools,  not  one  indolent  child  can  be 
found,  unless  he  has  been  made  so 
by  the  mismanagement  of  parents  or 
teachers.  Every  child  of  common  men- 
tal and  physical  ability  is  full  of  activity, 
and  not  only  craves  knowledge,  but  is 
fond  of  study. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         31 

And  it  is  the  teacher's  business  to 
direct  and  encourage  this  necessary 
work. 

The  studies  pursued  must  be  adapted 
to  the  capacity  and  standing  of  each 
scholar.  They  must  not  be  so  difficult 
as  to  cause  discouragement,  nor  so  easy 
as  to  encourage  idleness. 

His  time  must  be  fully  occupied,  to 
keep  him  out  of  mischief ;  and  his  ener- 
gies must  be  severely  tasked,  that  he 
may  secure  the  benefit  of  mental  disci- 
pline. If  his  lessons  could  be  learned 
without  effort,  his  school-life  would,  so 
far,  be  without  profit. 

But  an  industrious  and  laborious 
school  not  only  requires  no  outward 
discipline,  but  is  sure  of  improvement. 
The  teacher  should,  therefore,  spare  no 
pains  to  awaken  the  interest  and  occupy 
the  time  of  his  pupils,  that  he  may  gain 
these  desirable  objects. 


32  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

4 STILL  ANOTHER  MOULDING  AND  CONTROLLING 

POWER  ix  SCHOOL,  is  PUBLIC  OPINION. 

This  must  be  created  and  directed  by 
the  teacher,  or  he  is  powerless. 

And,  first;  he  must  create  a  favorable 
opinion  of  himself.  By  this  I  mean,  he 
must  gain  the  confidence  of  his  patrons 
and  pupils. 

To  this  end  he  must  become  intimate- 
ly acquainted  with  the  parents  of  his 
pupils  and  with  the  pupils  themselves,  — 
not  so  much  in  his  official  capacity,  as 
in  the  relations  of  private  life,  at  home 
and  by  the  way. 

As  the  teacher  moves  round  among 
his  patrons,  he  must  interest  himself  in 
whatever  interests  them,  and  adapt  him- 
self to  their  varying  tastes  and  employ- 

9 

ments. 

With  the  farmer  he  must  be  interest- 
ed in  crops  and  animals ;  with  the  me- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         33 

chanic,  in  works  of  art ;  with  the  mer- 
chant, in  merchandise  and  trade  ;  with 
the  mother,  he  must  not  forget  the 
children  which  constitute  their  mutual 
care,  nor  fail  to  notice  the  little  darling 
that  occupies  the  nearest  place  to  that 
mother's  heart.  To  neglect  the  young- 
est children  is  to  incur  the  mother's  dis- 
pleasure, which  may  result  in  unpopu- 
larity -with  the  whole  family,  and  per- 
haps the  whole  neighborhood. 

The  master  must  be  on  terms  of 
friendship  and  in  full  sympathy  with  all 
who  are  interested  in  the  success  of  the 
school,  if  he  would  himself  achieve  the 
greatest  success.  He  must  also  gain 
the  confidence  and  esteem  of  his  pupils. 
Indeed,  the  opinion  of  the  teacher  en- 
tertained in  the  district  is  generally  the 
measure  of  his  popularity  in  school. 
Comparatively  few  parents  ever  visit  the 
schoolroom,  to  learn  from  their  own  ob- 


34  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

servation  either  the  success  or  failure 
of  the  school.  They  are  in  full  sympa- 
thy with  their  children,  and  generally 
reflect  their  views  and  feelings  in  regard 
to  the  teacher. 

But  the  master  will  not  gain  the  con- 
fidence of  his  pupils  by  an  attempt  to 
gratify  all  their  wishes.  The  reckless 
are  always  the  first  to  find  fault  with 
loose  discipline.  If  he  would  be  re- 
spected in  his  office,  he  must  govern 
with  sternness  and  vigor.  He  must  act 
with  kindness,  magnanimity  and  justice; 
must  sympathize  with  childhood  and 
youth,  and  may  sometimes  join  in  their 
games  and  share  their  pastimes.  Out  of 
the  schoolroom  he  may  throw  off  the 
master,  and  -become  a  companion  with 
his  pupils.  This  familiarity  will  not  de- 
tract from  his  authority,  but  will  give 
him  vastly  increased  power  in  that  di- 
rection. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         35 

Public  opinion  should  also  be  em- 
ployed to  secure  good  order,  control 
recklessness,  subdue  rebellion,  and  crush 
out  the  evil  tendency  of  bad  habits. 
Whatever  is  right  and  proper,  and 
necessary  to  make  a  good  school,  must 
be  made  popular.  Whatever  is  wrong, 
and  of  evil  tendency,  must  be  made  un- 
popular. This  can  be  done ;  but  the 
teacher  must  have  skill,  patience,  and 
perseverance. 

Does  he  desire  more  punctuality  and 
promptness  ?  Let  him  make  them  pop- 
ular. Does  he  desire  to  abate  the  nui- 
sance of  whispering  ?  Let  him  hurl 
upon  it  the  full  force  of  public  opinion. 

This  point  is  so  important,  I  will 
illustrate. 

Present  the  subject  of  whispering  to 
the  school.  Lay  before  them  the  folly 
and  evils  of  the  habit,  and  secure  a 
vote,  as  you  easily  can,  in  favor  of  total 


36  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

abstinence.  Now  call  for  volunteers 
who  will  pledge  themselves  not  to  whis- 
per for  a  given  length  of  time,  and 
accept  such  a  pledge  from  all  who  are 
quite  sure  they  can  keep  it.  Call  this 
your  anti- whispering  society ;  admitting 
members  by  vote  of  a  majority,  and 
holding  them  to  their  pledge  by  an  ap- 
peal to  their  honor.  By  such  manage- 
ment and  constant  encouragement,  you 
will  enlist  a  large  majority  of  your 
pupils  in  the  enterprise,  and  awaken  a 
deep  interest  in  its  success.  And  the 
remaining  few  will  soon  beg  for  admis- 
sion under  the  constitution.  Public 
opinion  has  now  perfect  control  over 
this  vicious  habit,  and  perfect  order 
prevails. 

When  Superintendent  Philbrick  was 
master  of  the  Quincy  School  in  Boston, 
he  had  charge  of  seven  hundred  pupils 
gathered  from  the  district  without  se- 
lection. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         37 

The  school  building  had  been  erected 
and  occupied  several  years ;  and  yet  I 
was  told  by  him  that  not  a  mark  of 
pencil  or  knife  could  be  found  upon  the 
benches,  or  walls  of  the  building,  or 
even  upon  the  play-ground  fence. 

I  inquired  how  such  a  remarkable 
result  had  been  secured  ?  The  reply 
was,  "  By  piling  on  motives,"  —  by  the 
power  of  public  opinion. 

In  my  own  .experience,  I  have  some- 
times found  my  school  under  the  con- 
trol of  rowdyism.  The  reckless  might 
always  be  sure  of  encouragement  and 
support  in  the  violation  of  law  and 
order. 

And  there  was  no  way  to  govern 
that  school,  except  by  the  force  of  au- 
thority, backed  by  pains  and  penalties. 

I  have  been  able,  at  other  times,  to 
suppress  and  banish  rowdyism  by  public 
opinion.  In  one  instance,  the  necessity 


38  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

had  arisen  to  expel  two  young  men  for 
immoral  conduct. 

It  was  desirable  that  the  full  force  of 
this  act  of  discipline  should  be  felt  upon 
the  school.  Hence,  public  opinion  must 
be  created  to  sustain  the  necessary  se- 
verity. I  must  also  guard  against  re- 
action from  sympathy  which  was  sure 
to  follow  so  severe  punishment. 

The  case  was  fully  prepared,  and 
treated  with  deliberation  and  care,  to 
give  time  for  reflection.  And  then,  in 
the  presence  of  the  school,  and  in  the 
most  solemn  manner,  the  penalty  of  ex- 
pulsion was  executed.  And  immedi- 
ately aftsr,  a  vote  of  the  school  was 
called  for,  on  the  question  of  approval 
or  disapproval  of  my  severe  action. 

In  this  connection,  I  wish  to  observe  : 
I  did  not  consult  the  school  as  to  the 
propriety  or  expediency  of  expelling 
these  young  men.  That  question  was 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         89 

for  me  alone,  as  master,  to  settle.  The 
pupils  could  have  no  voice  in  that  mat- 
ter. Nor  did  I  call  upon  them  to  vote 
until  I  knew  that  public  opinion  would 
sustain  me. 

The    master   must   never  betray   his^) 
weakness,  nor   peril    his   authority,  by  [ 
submitting  any  question  of  discipline  to  \ 
his   school,  while   in  doubt  as  to  their  / 
approval   of   his    decision    and    action.  I 
But  with    the    assurance    of   such   ap-  \ 
proval,  he  may  with  safety  play  democ- 
racy to  any  extent,   and   thus   gain   a 
moral    power   and    influence    that  will 
greatly  strengthen  his  government.     In 
the  case   before  us,  I  secured  the  full 
benefit  of  my  severe  discipline  by  this 
public  expression.     Every  pupil  present, 
including  those  who  had  been  expelled, 
rose  to  sustain  me.     All  had  now  given 
their  vote  in  favor  of  good  order  and 
propriety   of   conduct,   and    committed 


40  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

themselves  to  abide  the  decision.  And 
the  influence  of  this  discipline  was  felt 
upon  that  school  for  good  for  many 
years  afterwards. 

5.  —  STILL     ANOTHER     IMPORTANT     DISCIPLINARY 
AGENCY  is  MENTAL  AND  PHYSICAL  RECREATION. 

The  mind  and  body  are  inseparably 
connected.  Hence,  mental  culture  can- 
not be  successfully  carried  on  without 
physical  culture.  Both  body  and  mind 
must  have  recreation,  and  more  than 
the  ordinary  recesses  and  holidays 
afford. 

Moreover,  in  every  teacher's  experi- 
ence, there  are  certain  hours  and  days 
when  the  fiend  of  Disorder  seems  to 
reign  in  the  schoolroom.  You  cannot 
assign  any  reason ;  but  the  very  atmos- 
phere is  pregnant  with  anarchy  and 
confusion.  "  It  would  seem,"  says  a 
distinguished  writer,  "  that  the  ordi- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         41 

nary  laws  of  unity  have  been  suddenly 
bewitched ;  the  whole  school  is  one 
organized  obstruction ;  the  scholars  are 
half-unconscious  incarnations  of  disin- 
tegration and  contraposition,  —  inverted 
divisors  engaged  in  universal  multiplica- 
tion. Under  these  circumstances,  what 
can  you  do  ? 

You  may  tighten  your  discipline,  but 
that  will  not  bind  the  volatile  essence 
of  confusion.  You  may  ply  the  usual 
energies  of  your  administration,  but  re- 
sistance is  abnormal.  You  may  flog, 
but  every  blow  uncovers  the  needle- 
points of  fresh  stings.  You  may  pro- 
test and  supplicate,  scold  and  argue, 
inveigh  and  insist :  the  demon  is  not 
exorcised,  nor  even  hit,  but  is  only  dis- 
tributed through  fifty  fretty  and  fidgety 
forms.  You  will  encounter  the  mis- 
chief successfully,  only  when  you  en- 
counter it  indirectly."  And  here  comes 


42  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

the  application  of  the  proposed  remedy : 
mental  and  physical  recreation. 

Let  an  unexpected  change  divert  the 
attention  of  the  pupils ;  let  some  gen- 
eral theme  be  introduced  in  a  familiar 
lecture  or  exciting  narrative ;  or,  if 
nothing  better  is  at  hand,  let  all  say,  in 
concert,  the  multiplication  table,  or  sing 
"  Old  Hundred,"  and  the  work  is  ac- 
complished. "  The  room  is  ventilated 
of  its  restless  contagion,  and  the  furies 
are  fled." 

Now  add  to  this  mental  the  physical 
recreation  of  school  gymnastics,  and 
you  have  a  still  more  effective  discipli- 
nary agency. 

I  speak  of  gymnastics  not  only  as 
indispensable  for  physical  development, 
but  as  a  means  of  school  government. 
The  exercise  operates  as  a  kind  of 
safety-valve  to  let  off  the  excess  of  ani- 
mal spirits  which  frequently  brings  the 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         43 

pupil  in  collision  with  his  teacher.  It 
relieves  the  school  of  that  morbid 
insensibility  and  careless  indifference 
which  so  often  result  from  the  monot- 
ony and  burdened  atmosphere  of  the 
schoolroom.  It  sets  up  a  standard  of 
self-government,  and  forms  the  habit  of 
cheerful  subjection  to  rightful  author- 
ity ;  and,  as  it  is  a  kind  of  regulator  of 
the  physical  system,  it  becomes  such  to 
the  conduct,  under  wholesome  laws. 

The  gymnastic  resembles  the  military 
drill,  and  has  the  same  general  influence 
upon  the  pupil  that  the  military  has 
upon  the  soldier,  —  to  produce  system, 
good  order,  and  obedience. 

This  view  of  the  subject  is  not  only 
in  accordance  with  my  own  experience, 
but  is  fully  sustained  by  the  testimony 
of  college  officers  who  have  had  a  fair 
opportunity  to  test  the  utility  of  this 
system  of  physical  culture. 


44  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Still  another  great  advantage  of 
gymnastic  exercise  is  seen  in  the  self- 
reliance  and  available  power  which  it 
creates.  This  is  of  more  importance  in 
life  than  brilliant  talents  or  great  learning. 
It  is  not  the  mere  possession  of  physical 
power  that  gives  ability,  but  the  con- 
scious control  -of  that  power,  which  is 
in  this  way  secured. 

And,  as  we  should  naturally  infer, 
gymnastics  is  the  legitimate  preserver 
and  restorer  of  health.  All  the  testi- 
mony that  has  been  taken  from  the 
seminaries  and  colleges  in  which  the  de- 
partment of  physical  culture  has  been 
established  goes  to  show  the  greatly 
improved  sanitary  condition  of  these  in- 
stitutions. From  thirty- three  to  fifty 
per  cent  of  the  ordinary  sickness  has 
been  prevented  by  this  means  alone. 

"Would  we  secure  to  the  rising  gener- 
ation, the  realization  of  the  old  motto, 


THE  DISCIPLINE   OF  THE  SCHOOL.         45 

"  Mem  sana  in  corpore  sano"  we  must 
restore  to  our  schools,  of  every  grade, 
systematic  physical  culture. 

Indeed,  every  department  of  educa- 
tion is  carried  on  through  a  system  of 
practical  gymnastics.  We  have  mental 
gymnastics,  moral  gymnastics,  and  phys- 
ical gymnastics  which  includes  vocal 
gymnastics.  The  law  of  development  is 
through  exercise.  A  "  sound  mind  "  is 
one  whose  faculties  and  powers  have 
been  called  into  harmonious  action  by 
patient  and  long-continued  study.  A 
"  sound  body  "  has  been  developed  by 
the  exercise  of  every  one  of  its  four 
hundred  and  forty-six  muscles.  Thus 
the  body  grows,  and  becomes  healthy 
and  vigorous. 

And  as  the  mind  and  body  are  in- 
separably connected,  neither  can  be  in  a 
sound  condition  while  the  other  is  dis- 
eased or  uncultivated.  We  must, 


46  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

therefore,  have  physical  culture  in  all 
our  schools,  if  we  would  secure  the 
highest  degree  of  improvement. 

Mark  the  contrast  between  the  vigor- 
ous gymnast,  in  her  easy  and  graceful 
suit,  and  the  indolent  belle  of  fashion, 
whose  muscles  have  never  been  released 
from  the  bondage  of  corsets,  and  whose 
modesty  recoils  at  the  thought  of  vigor- 
ous exercise  and  womanly  sports.  Observe 
the  ruddy  countenance,  erect  posture, 
quick  and  elastic  steps  of  the  one,  and 
the  sickly  complexion  and  and  feebleness 
of  the  other.  The  former  has  a  regular 
and  natural  appetite,  good  digestion, 
sweet  sleep,  and  great  power  of  mental 
application  and  attainment ;  the  latter  is 
a  professional  dyspeptic,  nervous,  rest- 
less, gloomy,  sickly,  and  pale,  with  no 
higher  ambition  than  to  spend  her  life  in 
indolence  and  novel-reading. 

Free   gymnastics  is   adapted  to  cor- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         47 

rect  awkwardness  of  manner,  and  to 
cultivate  gracefulness  of  bearing.  It 
gives  agility,  strength,  and  ready  control 
of  the  muscles,  and  thus  tends  to  pro- 
duce that  natural  and  dignified  carriage 
of  the  body,  and  the  easy  and  graceful 
movements  of  the  limbs,  which  are  called 
refinement  of  manners.  The  gymnas- 
tic drill  also  awakes  buoyancy  of  spirits 
and  personal  sympathy.  Concert  of 
action  brings  the  class  into  personal 
contact,  in  a  variety  of  ways,  and  tends 
not  only  to  create  mutual  good-will,  but 
the  greatest  interest  and  enthusiasm. 
All  this  promotes  improved  circulation, 
digestion,  respiration,  and  that  cheer- 
fulness and  hopefulness  which  dispel 
despondency,  and  create  new  life  and 
vigor. 

And  another  special  advantage  of 
gymnastics  in  school  is  its  tendency  to 
correct  and  control  the  ruinous  habit  of 
fashionable  female  dress. 


48  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

The  gymnastic  garb  must  leave  the 
limbs  free  from  restraint,  and  the  mus- 
cles and  vital  organs  free  from  pres- 
sure. Hence,  under  this  treatment,  the 
beautiful  female  form  is  left  as  God  has 
made  it,  to  be  developed  according  to 
his  own  plan. 

The  public  taste  and  popular  preju- 
dice, as  they  have  been  manifested  on 
this  subject,  only  illustrate  how  entirely 
physical  culture  has  been  neglected  in 
our  age  and  country. 

Fashionable  culture  has  taken  its 
place.  The  natural  restlessness  and  ac- 
tivity of  childhood  have  saved  the  little 
girl  from  the  perils  of  fashionable  life. 
She  will  indulge  in  perpetual  gymnas- 
tics. But  a  little  later  her  fond  mother 
recalls  and  restrains  her.  She  becomes 
delicate,  and  must  not  be  exposed  to 
the  sun  or  wind  or  storm. 

As  she  grows  to  womanhood,  she  is 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         49 

confined  in  badly-ventilated  rooms,  over 
airtight  stoves,  and  is  so  tenderly  cared 
for,  and  so  much  indulged  in  indolence 
and  folly,  that  she  has  become  compara- 
tively helpless. 

The  next  step  in  this  process  of  fash- 
ionable culture,  is  still  more  ruinous. 
With  the  Chinese,  it  is  the  compara- 
tively harmless  pressure  of  the  female 
foot ;  with  the  Indian  mother,  it  is  the 
pressure  of  the  head,  to  make  it  long 
and  narrow;  but  with  the  American 
CHEISTIAN  mother,  it  is  the  tight  lacing 
of  the  waist,  which  is  sometimes  so 
stringent  and  constant,  that  the  beauti- 
ful form  which  God  has  given  the  child 
has  been  changed  into  an  inverted  cone; 
and  the  vital  organs  are  so  compressed, 
that  muscular  action,  blood  circulation, 
and  a  long  breath  are  hardly  possible. 

At  home  and  at  school,  physical  cul- 
ture is  entirely  neglected.  Is  it  strange, 


50  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

then,  that  the  robust  and  red-cheeked 
girl  has  become  the  pale,  puny,  and 
consumptive  young  lady,  and  that  ere 
long  that  mother  must  shed  bitter  tears 
over  her  early  grave  ? 

This  is  fashionable  culture.  I  rec- 
ommend, in  its  place,  physical  culture. 
Give  our  girls  and  young  ladies  free  air, 
a  free  dress,  and  free  gymnastics,  and 
they  will  come  upon  the  stage  of  active 
life  with  all  the  physical  ability  and 
vigor  of  the  old  Spartans. 

And  this  system  of  free  gymnastics  •  is 
entirely  practicable  for  both  sexes,  and 
should  be  at  once  introduced  into  all 
our  public  schools. 

Dr.  Dio  Lewis  of  Boston,  Prof.  Welch 
of  Yale  College,  Prof.  Barlow  of  Am- 
herst  College,  and  Mr.  Mason  of  Boston, 
have  written  books  upon  this  subject, 
which  will  greatly  aid  the  teacher  who 
desires  to  receive  and  give  instruction 
in  this  department  of  discipline. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         51 

6.  —  KINDNESS   is  ANOTHER   POWERFUL   AGENCY 

IN  THE  MANAGEMENT  OF  A  SCHOOL. 

• 

By  this,  as  exemplified  in  the  life  of 
the   true   teacher,  I  mean  his  uniform  ^ 
good  will,  earnest  sympathy,  and  hearty    7 
generosity,  habitually  exercised  towards 
his  pupils. 

There  is  no  force  on  earth  so  potent 
as  love.  When  it  has  possession  of  the 

• 

human  heart,  it  is  all-pervading  and 
overpowering,  and  especially  if  brought 
to  bear  upon  sympathetic  childhood  and 
youth.  That  teacher  alone  who  truly 
loves  his  pupils  has  power  to  gain  their 
love  and  confidence,  which  should  be 
his  chief  reliance  in  school  manage- 
ment. 

An  affectionate  pupil  will  confide  in 
your  judgment,  respect  your  authority, 
and  fear  your  displeasure.  Show  him 
by  your  personal  attention  and  kindness 


52  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

;  that  you  are  his  true  friend,  and  that  all 
your  efforts  are  designed  to  secure  his 
best  good,  and  make  him  believe  this, 
and  you  hold  him  as  by  the  power  of 
enchantment ;  you  have  no  further 
need  of  the  display  of  physical  force. 
He  is  held  under  another  and  higher 
law,  which  induces  him  to  gratify  your 
wishes,  and  seek  the  best  good  of  your 
school. 

You,  as  a  teacher,  hold  for  the  time 
being  the  place  of  the  parent,  and  you 
should,  as  far  as  possible,  cherish  the 
affection  and  manifest  the  interest  and 
zeal  of  the  true  mother  who  spends 
her  life  in  loving  and  toiling  for  her 
children. 

But  do  not  misunderstand  me  here, 
either  in  what  I  have  said,  or  may  say, 
touching  school  discipline.  This  kind- 
ness, which  is  an  essential  element  in 
every  true  system  of  government,  is 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         53 

not,  and  cannot  be,  a  substitute  for  au- 
thority, or  an  obstacle  to  severity,  when 
the  good  of  the  individual  or  the  school 
demands  it.  And  I  wish  it  distinctly  un- 
derstood by  my  readers,  that  the  sys- 
tem of  school  government  which  I  rec- 
ommend, is  full  of  love  and  kindness, 
and  that  love  is  never  more  truly  exer- 
cised than  in  administering  necessary 
reproof,  or  inflicting  necessary  pain,  in 
the  administration  of  public  affairs. 

Of  the  teacher's  heart  Shakspeare 
could  not  say,  "  It  is  too  full  of  the 
milk  of  human  kindness,"  if  only  he 
has  enough  of  authority,  firmness,  and  ~> 

executive   will.      "Without   these,    even    ' 
•  m '  j 

love  as  an  element  of  school  discipline 

is  sometimes  powerless. 

God's  infinite  love  fails  to  win  the 
hearts  of  wicked  men ;  and,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  world,  he  has  instituted 
pains  and  penalties  to  be  inflicted  upon 


54  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

the  incorrigible  offender.  All  the  suf- 
fering that  has  been  endured  since  the 
fall  of  .man  is  so  much  corporal  punish- 
ment inflicted  by  God  as  a  penalty  for 
the  violation  of  law.  And  can  man  de- 
vise a  government  wiser  than  His  ? 

/• 

7.  —  THIS     BRINGS    ME    TO    CONSIDER     THE    DISCI- 
PLINE OF  PUNISHMENT. 

I  have  considered  the  power  of  sys- 
tem, law,  and  kindness,  in  their  silent 
but  effective  influence  upon  individuals 
and  the  school.  I  have  spoken  of  the 
means  and  methods  of  preventing  evil. 
I  come  now  to  the  penalties  to  be  in- 
flicted when  crime  has  been  committed. 

Wholesome  laws  will  be  violated 
under  any  system  of  school  manage- 
ment. And  the  question  to  be  settled 
is,  shall  the  government  of  the  school 
be  positive  and  efficient?  If  so,  the 
master  must  have  the  right,  disposition, 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF   THE  SCHOOL.         5o 

and  power  to  inflict  punishment  when 
necessary.  If  this  right  be  denied,  or 
this  power  withheld,  the  government  of 
the  school  is  at  the  mercy  of  circum- 
stances :  it  cannot  be  sustained. 

In  the  dispensation  of  penalties,  pro- 
fessional knowledge  and  wise  discrimi- 
nation are  requisite.  The  circumstances 
connected  with  the  offence  must  be 
carefully  studied,  and  a  distinction 
always  made  between  wilful  and  un- 
intentional wrong.  The  isolated  act 
of  transgression  does  not  indicate  .the 
degree  of  guilt  incurred,  nor  the  kind 
of  punishment  to  be  inflicted.  The 
presence  or  absence  of  palliating  cir- 
cumstances, the  motive  which  gene- 
rated the  act,  the  present  views  and 
feelings  of  the  offending  pupil,  must  all 
be  taken  into  the  account.  The  master 
should  never,  therefore,  threaten  a 
specific  punishment  for  anticipated  of- 


56  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

fences.  No  two  cases  of  transgression 
will  be  exactly  alike ;  and  hence,  the 
kind  and  degree  of  punishment  should 
be  varied  as  the  case  demands. 

Mark  the  emphatic  sentence  which 
follows.  The  good  disciplinarian  sel- 
dom resorts  to  severe  punishments  in 
the  government  of  his  school.  Yet,  I 
will  add,  he  never  relinquishes  his  right 
and  power  to  punish,  as  circumstances 
require.  Nor  does  he  regard  severity, 
when  necessary,  as  an  evil  to  be 
deplored. 

It  is  indeed  a  sore  evil  that  mortifica- 
tion has  so  endangered  the  life  of  the 
patient  that  amputation  of  the  limb  is 
necessary.  But  it  is  not  an  evil  that 
you  have  at  hand  surgical  skill  and 
suitable  instruments  to  perform  the 
operation. 

It  is  indeed  a  great  misfortune  that 
any  child  or  pupil  has  become  so  de- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         57 

moralized  and  reckless  as  to  incur  the 
penalties  of  the  law ;  but  Solomon's  rod, 

which   has  restored   him   to    obedience 

> 

and  duty,  is  a  blessing  whose  influence 
will  be  felt  and  acknowledged  by  the 
offender  as  long  as  he  lives. 

Nor  is  severe  punishment  to  be  re- 
garded as  "  the  last  resort."  When  it 
may  be  inflicted  at  all,  it  is  the  first 
resort  and  the  true  remedy.  Allow  me 
to  illustrate :  A  skilful  physician  is 
called  to  prescribe  for  a  patient  who  is 
sick  almost  unto  death.  He  sees  at  a 
glance,  that  there  is  only  one  remedy 
which  can  save  his  life,  and  even  that 
must  be  promptly  administered.  But 
that  is  a  powerful  and  dangerous  medi- 
cine, except  in  scientific  and  experi- 
enced hands.  Now,  the  question  is, 
shall  it  be  given  at  once,  or  as  "  the 
last  resort," — after  every  other  milder 
remedy  has  been  tried?  If  the  physi- 


58  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

cian  resorts  to  herb-drinks  and  tonics, 
in  the  case  supposed,  he  shows  himself 
to  be  a  quack ;  and  his  patient  will 
die,  while  he,  tender-hearted  simpleton, 
is  experimenting  upon  him !  But  the 
calomel  is  given,  and  the  patient  recov- 
ers. So  with  punishment.  It  may  be 
mild,  or  it  may  be  severe.  Each  kind 
is  appropriate,  as  a  remedy  for  specific 
evils ;  but,  if  the  case  is  one  that  re- 
quires great  severity,  that  kind  of  pun- 
ishment must  be  inflicted,  promptly  and 
faithfully.  It  aims  to  restore  to  obedi- 
ence and  fidelity,  under  aggravating 
circumstances  j  and  nothing  else  will  se- 
cure -the  object  in  view.  "  Spare  not 
the  rod,"  therefore,  lest  you  "  spoil 
the  child ;  "  and  delay  not  its  applica- 
tion. 

Less  aggravating  and  dangerous 
offences  should  be  treated  with  milder 
penalties ;  and  the  point  to  be  estab- 


THE  DISCIPLINE   OF   THE  SCHOOL.          59 

lished  here  is,  that  each  offender  should 
be  promptly  punished  as  he  deserves. 

Much  has  been  said  and  written  upon 
corporal  punishment  and  moral  suasion  ; 
but  their  appropriate  use  in  school  disci- 
pline is  seldom  understood,  as  it  seems 
to  me. 

Moral  suasion  is  not  the  remedy  for 
bold  and  defiant  violations  of  law,  if 
you  mean  by  that  term  the  persuading 
of  the  culprit  to  return  to  obedience,  or 
the  purchase  of  his  allegiance  by  a 
promised  reward. 

Rebellion  should  be  met  by  stunning, 
crushing  blows,  such  as  will  vindicate 
and  re-establish  authority,  and  deter 
others  from  committing  the  same  crime. 

Mildness  is  cruelty  under  such  circum- 
stances. All  such  cases  demand  instant 
and  determined  action.  The  time  for 
conciliation  is  after  the  rebels  are  sub- 
jugated and  the  authority  of  the  gov- 
ernment is  restored. 


60  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

And  here  allow  me  to  remark,  moral 
influence  and  kindness  should  attend 
every  act  of  severity.  Never  let  the 
sun  go  down  upon  the  wrath  of  a  chas- 
tised pupil.  See  him  alone  ;  bring  to 
bear  upon  him  all  your  moral  power; 
treat  him  now  with  kindness  and  confi- 
dence, as  far  as  possible,  and  you  will 
restore  him  to  duty  and  favor.  With- 
out the  rod,  moral  suasion  might  have 
been  powerless ;  or  if  successful,  what 
was  gained  by  persuasion  was  lost  to 
authority.  It  must  never  be  doubtful 
that  the  master  has  supreme  control  over 
his  little  kingdom. 

If  his  authority  is  trifled  with,  it 
must  be  restored  without  delay ;  and 
any  punishment  is  judicious  that  is 
necessary  to  this  end. 

But  do  not  offer  an  angry  word  or 
blow  for  every  offence,  real  or  fancied. 
There  is  no  authority  nor  wisdom  in 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         61 

such .  a  course.  That  school-teacher 
who,  in  Schenectady,  N.Y.,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1870,  "  inflicted  five  hundred 
and  seventy-three  punishments  on  the 
children  of  her  school,"  ought  to  have 
been  tried  and  convicted  of  incom- 
petency,  and  dismissed  from  service. 
Every  such  teacher  should  be  rejected 
from  the  profession. 

The  best  masters,  under  this  system, 
punish  the  least.  And  the  few  cases 
where  severity  is  necessary  are  treated 
with  great  calmness,  firmness,  and 
solemnity.  The  child  is  made  to  feel 
that  an  abiding  love  and  sense  of  duty 
•  alone  prompted  the  punishment ;  and 
yet  he  is  made  to  understand  that  au- 
thority always  controls  the  school,  — 
that  it  is  the  master  s  duty  to  command, 
and  the  pupil's  duty  to  obey. 

Practically,  the  system  of  govern- 
ment here  recommended  is  the  only 
one  which  has  been  successful. 


62  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Moral  suasion  which  has  abandoned 
the  right,  or  lost  the  power,  to  punish, 
has  proved  a  failure.  In  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  during  the  last  year,  the  use  of 
the  rod  was  restored  in  all  the  schools, 
in  which  it  had  been  previously  prohib- 
ited by  universal  consent.  The  trial 
of  the  mild  system  had  been  made 
under  the  most  favorable  circumstances, 
but  signally  failed ;  and  so  it  will  fail,  in 
every  instance  where  experience  is 
allowed  to  test  the  false  theory. 

8. — THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  BIBLE  IN  OUR  SCHOOLS 
MAY  NOW  BE  CONSIDERED. 

The  religious  element  in  our  system- 
of  education  is  of  the  highest  impor- 
tance to  the  individual,  the  school,  and 
the  nation.  It  moulds  the  character, 
regulates  the  conduct,  and  controls  the 
destiny  of  those  who  come  under  its 
influence.  It  is  suited  to  develop  the 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         63 

moral  mature,  to  regulate  the  affections, 
to  enlighten  the  conscience,  and  to  di- 
rect and  purify  the  life.  Hence,  that 
teacher  who  fails  to  bring  religious  influ- 
ence to  be-ar  upon  his  school  is  false  to 
the  high  trust  committed  to  him.  And 
I  know  of  no  standard  of  moral  and  re- 
ligious truth  but  the  Bible. 

But  shall  the  Bible  be  retained  in  our 
public  schools  ?  This  is  the  vital  ques- 
tion of  the  hour,  and  one  full  of  impor- 
tance to  the  public  weal.  It  has  already 
created  an  open  war  in  our  large  cities, 
which  has,  at  times,  raged  furiously, 
and  with  doubtful  results ;  a  war  of 
Christian  patriotism  against  the  growing 
skepticism  of  the  country.  Infidels  have 
generally  joined  in  the  hue  and  cry 
against  Bible-reading  in  our  schools. 
Hence  the  following  testimony  in  favor 
of  retaining  the  Bible  is  particularly 
gratifying.  Professor  Huxley,  the  Eng- 


64  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

lish  savant,  who  has  the  reputation  of 
being  nearly  or  quite  an  atheist  and 
materialist,  has  lately  come  out,  very 
decidedly,  in  favor  of  reading  the  Bible 
in  the  common  schools.  He  would 
have  it  done  "  without  any  theological 
comments,  and  judiciously  as  to  selec- 
tions to  be  read."  The  ground  of  his 
advocacy  of  the  Bible  is,  that  "  there  must 
be  a  moral  substratum  to  the  child's  edu- 
cation, to  make  it  valuable;  and  that 
there  is  no  other  source  from  which 
this  can  be  obtained  at  all  comparable 
with  the  Bible"  This  passage  needs 
no  comments.  Only  let  the  reader 
ponder  the  italicized  sentence. 

The  truth  is  conceded  by  all  intelli- 
gent men  of  every  Christian  denomina- 
tion, as  well  as  by  Professor  Huxley, 
that  as  a  text-book  of  morals  the  Bible 
is  incomparable.  And  if  we  have  no 
right  to  educate  a  moral  being  while 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         65 

wholly  ignoring  and  excluding  moral 
influences,  we  have  a  right  to  claim  a 
prominent  place  for  the  Scriptures  in 
every  school  in  the  nation.  Nor  have 
we  any  reason  to  fear  that  Bible-instruc- 
tion cannot  be  given  without  encour- 
aging a  sectarian  bias. 

As  a  book  of  literature  and  law  the 
Bible  has  no  equal.  Webster,  Carlyle, 
Coleridge,  Chalmers,  each  has  pronounced 
the  Book  of  Job  the  most  sublime  poem 
in  the  possession  of  mankind.  The  his- 
torical portions  of  the  Bible  are  unsur- 
passed in  ancient  or  modern  literature. 
The  stories  of  the  Old  Testament  excel 
all  others  in  beauty  and  pathos.  They 
are  always  fresh,  —  they  never  tire. 
They  fascinate  the  young  ;  they  interest 
the  old.  The  Bible  is  the  only  book 
ever  written  whose  characters  are  noi 
overdrawn  and  distorted.  Indeed,  the 
human  race  had  better  spare  all  other 


66  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

books  in  the  process  of  education  than 
to  be  deprived  of  this  Book  of  books. 

Daniel  Webster  once  said,  "I  have 
read  through  the  entire  Bible  many 
times.  I  now  make  it  a  practice  to  go 
through  it  once  a  year.  It  is  the  book 
of  all  others  for  lawyers,  as  well  as 
divines ;  and  I  pity  the  man  who  cannot 
find  in  it  a  rich  supply  of  thought  and 
of  rules  for  his  conduct.  It  fits  a  man 
for  .life.  It  prepares  him  for  death." 

How,  then,  can  there  be  any  question 
as  to  the  propriety,  the  desirableness, 
and  the  necessity  of  retaining  the  Bible 
in  all  our  public  schools?  It  is  surely 
safe  and  wise  to  make  our  children  fa- 
miliar with  the  only  perfect  book  of 
literature  in  the  world,  and  to  bring 
them  under  the  wholesome  influence  and 
moulding  power  of  its  pure  and  sublime 
truths,  while  then:  hearts  are  yet  tender, 
and  their  character  is  forming. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         67 

It  becomes  every  American  teacher 
to  wake  up  to  a  consciousness  of  the 
danger,  and  to  prepare  himself  to  de- 
fend the  principles  and  institutions 
bequeathed  to  us  by  our  fathers.  A  free 
Bible,  in  free  schools,  is  the  birthright 
of  Americans ;  and  let  us  not  barter  it 
away,  or  suffer  it  to  be  wrested  from 
our  hands. 

We  yet  have  the  free  Bible  in  our 
possession,  and  the  inquiries  here  re- 
turn to  us.  Shall  it  be  retained  ?  And 
how  shall  it  be  used  in  the  management 
and  discipline  of  our  schools  ? 

To  the  first  inquiry,  let  every  Amer- 
ican patriot  and  Christian  respond  with 
an  emphatic  YEA. 

In  answering  the  last  question,  I  will 
say,  it  should  not  be  employed  to  teach 
dogmas.  .Sectarianism  should  have  no 
place  in  the  schoolroom.  But  the 
Bible,  in  the  hands  of  the  moral  and 


68  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

religious  teacher,  should  be  made  the 
standard  of  right  and  duty;  and  per- 
sonal obligation  to  cherish  its  principles 
and  practise  its  precepts,  should  be 
everywhere  inculcated. 

The  Bible  should  not  be  regarded 
nor  used  as  a  common  text-book.  It 
should  be  read  in  connection  with  other 
religious  exercises,  either  by  the  pupils 
or  the  teacher;  more  properly  by  the 
teacher,  as  it  seems  to  me. 

If  the  teacher  read  the  Scriptures 
himself,  he  is  able  to  make  the  exercise 
more  impressive,  and  to  hold  and  direct 
this  mighty  power  in  the  discipline  of 
his  school. 

The  moral  and  religious  atmosphere 
of  the  Bible  should  pervade  the  school- 
room ;  it  should  clothe  every  thought, 
direct  every  motive,  and  inspire  every 
action.  And,  so  far  as  this  influence  is 
felt,  the  happiest  results  are  realized. 


TEE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         69 

This  same  agency  should  also  be  em- 
ployed in  punishing  for  falsehood,  pil- 
fering, profanity,  and  the  like. 

The  teacher  should  not  forget  the 
Bible  doctrine,  that  "  The  rod  and  re- 
proof give  wisdom."  Yet  the  moral 
treatment  of  such  offences  is  always 
appropriate,  either  with  or  without  se- 
verity, as  the  case  may  be.  If  the 
knowledge  of  the  crime  is  confined  to 
the  criminal  and  the  teacher,  it  may  be 
treated  privately,  for  the  good  of  the 
individual.  But,  if  it  has  been  made 
public,  the  punishment  should  be  in- 
flicted in  the  presence  of  the  school, 
that  all  similar  cases  may  be  reached, 
and  the  whole  benefited. 

Let  the  folly,  wickedness,  and  conse- 
quences of  the  crime  be  fully  exposed, 
and  brought  home,  if  possible,  upon  the 
conscience. 

And,  in  the  settlement  of  the  question, 


70  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

never  fail  to  leave  a  way  open  for  re- 
pentance and  restitution.  To  illustrate : 
Fourteen  dollars,  in  bank-bills,  had 
been  taken  from  the  drawer  in  a  teach- 
er's office.  It  was  fully  believed  that 
one  of  the  boys,  who  had  been  in  the 
school  and  family  for  some  time,  was 
the  guilty  party.  Two  things  were  now 
to  be  done ;  viz.,  to  convict  the  guilty, 
and  punish  the  crime.  To  this  end,  the 

• 

facts  of  the  case  were  made  public.  The 
nature  and  criminality  of  pilfering  were 
explained  ;  the  probability  of  convicting 
the  offender  was  urged ;  and  the  disgrace 
and  mortification  of  friends  when  the 
facts  should  be  exposed  were  classed 
among  the  sad  consequences  of  the  act. 
It  was  presumed  that  the  crime  was 
committed  in  a  thoughtless  moment,  and 
that  the  boy  would  be  glad  to  restore 
the  money  if  he  had  opportunity ;  and 
this  was  earnestly  recommended. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.          71 

The  next  morning,  when  the  school 
assembled  for  prayers,  the  lost  money 
was  found  carefully  folded  between  the 
leaves  of  the  teacher's  Bible.  As  he 
cast  his  eyes  upon-  the  school  before 
him,  the  guilt  of  the  boy  was  so  mani- 
fest upon  his  countenance,  and  in  his 
actions,  that  there  could  be  no  longer 
any  doubt  as  to  his  identity. 

The  teacher  now  took  occasion  to 
commend  the  noble  act  of  restitution, 
and  spoke  of  the  propriety  of  placing 
the  stolen  money  in  the  Bible,  —  thus 
correcting  conscience  by  the  great 
standard  of  right  and  duty ;  and  finally 
alluded  to  the  happy  consequences,  if 
the  boy  should  never  again  yield  to 
such  temptations. 

The  matter  was  here  dropped,  but 
the  sequel  has  been  written.  The  lad, 
though  a  pilferer,  as  his  father  said, 
from  his  early  childhood,  was  never 


72  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

known  to  repeat  the  act.  When  he  left 
school,  he  took  an  important  position  as 
clerk,  was  afterwards  partner  in  busi- 
ness, and  is  now  (twenty-five  years 
afterwards)  a  successful  business  man  in 
one  of  our  New-England  cities. 

Another  instance. 

A  gold  dollar  had  disappeared  from 
the  teacher's  table,  while  she  stepped  to 
a  neighboring  room.  Two  school-girls, 
who  were  the  only  persons  in  the  room, 
had  disappeared.  It  was  Saturday ;  and 
in  the  evening  the  young  ladies  were 
assembled  for  family  worship  in  the 
public  parlor.  The  principal,  who  was 
conducting  the  services,  commenced 
describing  the  effects  and  consequences 
of  having,  by  accident,  deposited  a  gold 
dollar  upon  the  human  lungs.  It  would 
corrode  and  poison ;  produce  inflamma- 
tion, disease,  and  death,  if  it  could  not 
be  removed. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         73 

He  then  transferred  the  gold  dollar 
from  the  lungs  to  the  conscience,  and 
portrayed  the  consequent  guilt,  remorse, 
anguish,  and  moral  death  resulting  from 
such  a  crime,  if  not  repented  of.  He 
presumed  the  young  lady  would  gladly 
restore  the  money,  and  save  herself 
from  the  disgrace  and  suffering  that 
must  follow.  He  told  her  where  she 
could  leave  the  dollar,  and  that  the  fact 
of  restoring  it  would  be  proof  of  her 
penitence,  and  would  save  her  from 
exposure. 

But,  in  her  desperation,  she  had 
already  thrown  the  gold  dollar  down 
the  register,  and  could  not  restore  it. 
But  she  did  borrow  the  amount  of  a 
teacher,  confidentially,  to  be  paid  from 
her  sp ending-money,  and  deposited  it 
as  suggested.  And  so  the  whole  matter 
was  settled,  and  the  most  satisfactory 
results  followed.  The  parents  of  this 


74  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

young  lady  have  never  known  that  any 
thing  of  the  kind  ever  occurred. 

These  cases  indicate  the  method  I 
would  adopt  in  dealing  with  school 
vices. 

9.  —  WE  MAY  NEXT  CONSIDER  THE  DISCIPLINE  OP 
STUDY. 

Study  is  mental  gymnastics,  sys- 
tematic thinking ;  and  the  end  in  view  is 
development  and  culture.  One  great 
object  of  the  school  is  to  induce  and 
direct  this  mental  exercise.  Study  is  of 
the  first  importance,  and,  hence,  must 
have  the  first  attention  of  every  practi- 
cal teacher.  In  the  organization,  classi- 
fication, management,  and  government 
of  the  school,  his  chief  aim  is  to  secure 
mental  application. 

To  this  end  he  arranges  certain  hours 
of  the  day  which  are  especially  devoted 
to  study.  No  unnecessary  interruptions 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         75 

are  allowed.  In  the  selection  of  studies 
and  arrangement  of  classes,  he  has 
regard  to  the  capacities  and  standing  of 
each  pupil,  so  that  he  may  work 
earnestly  and  successfully.  He  requires 
a  regular  hour  to  be  devoted  to  each 
study  and  recitation,  that  order  and 
system  may  everywhere  prevail.  He 
enforces  rigid  discipline,  that  the  school- 
room may  be  quiet ;  and,  most  important 
of  all,  he  inspires  his  pupils  with  an 
enthusiasm  that  creates  a  love  for  the 
duties  of  the  school,  and  earnestness  in 
study.  He  teaches  them  how  to  study ; 
that  it  is  not  the  number  of  hours  spent 
with  book  in  hand,  but  close  application, 
that  secures  good  lessons  and  thorough 
discipline,  and  that  self-application  is 
the  only  condition  of  sound  learning. 
Hence,  he  will  not  allow  them  to  seek 
assistance  from  each  other,  nor  often 
from  the  teacher. 


76  TEACHER  '8  MANUAL. 

And  the  wise  teacher  always  instructs 
his  pupils  to  study  thoughts  and  sub- 
jects, instead  of  words  and  books. 

Thus  correct  habits  of  study  are 
formed,  and  the  foundation  is  laid  for 
successful  training  at  every  future  stage 
of  education. 

Study  is  the  exercise  of  acquiring,  and 
the  only  means  of  mental  culture.  Mind 
is  developed  through  its  agency,  and 
the  power  of  self-control  and  self-direc- 
tion sained. 

10.  —  THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  RECITATION  COMES  NEXT 
IN  ORDER. 

Recitation  is  the  exercise  of  expres- 
sion, and,  like  study,  belongs  wholly  to 
the  scholar.  Study  and  recitation  are 
the  principal  means  of  gaining  mental 
power  and  practical  ability.  Both  are 
indispensable  to  the  end  in  view,  if  not 
equally  important. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         77 

Recitation  has  some  incidental  advan- 
tages of  its  own.  If  properly  conducted, 
it  induces  study.  Few  lessons  would  be 
learned  in  any  school  if  no  recitations 
were  required,  or  if  it  was  understood 
beforehand,  that  the  hour  of  recitation 
was  to  be  occupied  by  the  teacher  in 
lecturing  or  asking  questions.  Let  the 
pupil  know  that  he  must  stand  before 
his  class,  and  recite  and  explain  inde- 
pendently of  his  teacher,  and  earnest 
application  to  study  will  be  the  result. 

Again,  recitation  gives  distinctness 
and  vividness  to  acquired  knowledge. 
No  lesson  is  fully  learned  and  fixed  in 
the  memory  until  it  is  carefully  recited. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that  every  pupil 
must  recite  at  every  recitation  or  suffer 
a  loss.  Classes  should  never  be  too 
large  to  allow  this  thorough  personal 
drill.  That  teacher  who  claims  ability 
to  educate  classes  numbering  from  fifty 


78  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

to  seventy-five  is  either  a  novice  or  a 
quack.  Such  arrangements  and  such 
teaching  are  fruitful  sources  of  indolence 
and  superficial  scholarship. 

Recitation  in  concert  conies  under  the 
same  head.  This  may  sometimes  be  a 
profitable  exercise,  when  the  whole 
school  can  engage  in  it,  for  relief,  recrea- 
tion or  improvement.  But  class  reci- 
tation in  concert,  as  a  habit,  creates 
disorder  in  the  schoolroom,  prevents 
quiet  study,  destroys  individual  self- 
reliance,  affords  a  hiding-place  for  the 
idle  and  reckless,  and  removes  the 
strongest  motive  for  earnest  application. 

But  the  relation  of  recitation  to  study 
is  not  its  most  important  use.  All  that 
is  practical  in  education,  in  every 
department  of  life,  is  developed  by  reci- 
tation. The  power  of  action  no  less 
than  the  power  of  expression  is  gained 
by  this  alone.  The  child  learns  to  walk 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  TEE  SCHOOL.         79 

and  talk  by  walking  and  talking.  It 
could  learn  in  no  other  way.  The 
mechanic  learns  to  use  his  tools  by 
using  them.  He  could  never  gain  the 
•power  to  build  a  house,  construct  an 
engine,  or  manufacture  a  watch,  by 
reading  or  hearing  lectures  on  the  sub- 
ject. In  each  department  he  learns  his 
trade  by  reciting. 

The  skilled  musician  has  gained  his 
wonderful  ability  to  use  the  voice  and 
the  instrument  by  years  of  patient  reci- 
tation. 

The  statesman  and  orator,  whose  elo- 
quence moves  the  senate  and  attracts 
the  attention  of  an  admiring  nation,  has 
gained  his  power  of  influence  by  the 
practice  of  oratory.  And  so  the  art  of 
easy,  graceful,  and  intelligent  conversa- 
tion, and  elegant  composition,  is  ac- 
quired by  conversing  and  writing. 
These  examples,  drawn  from  the  theatre 


80  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

of  busy  life,  serve  to  illustrate  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  school  recitations, 
and  to  indicate  the  manner  in  which 
they  should  be  conducted.  I  come, 
then,  to  consider 

11. — THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

We  may  here  distinguish  between 
instruction  and  recitation.  The  former 
is  the  business  of  the  teacher,  the  latter 
belongs  exclusively  to  the  pupil.  The 
object  of  the  one  is  to  impart  informa- 
tion, induce  study,  and  to  awaken 
thought;  the  object  of  the  other  is  to 
express  the  thoughts  which  the  scholar 
has  gained  by  study,  observation,  and 
reflection.  School  instruction  should 
aim  to  interest  and  aid  the  mind  in  self- 
application  ;  school  recitation  serves,  as 
has  been  suggested,  to  render  acquired 
knowledge  more  definite,  and  concep- 
tions more  vivid,  and  cultivates  the 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         81 

power  and  habit  of  expression.  And  all 
these  exercises  —  study,  recitation,  and 
instruction  —  have  one  common  end  to 
accomplish,  viz.,  discipline. 

In  speaking  further  of  the  discipline 
o£  instruction,  I  shall  naturally  consider 
the  different  methods  which  have  been 
adopted. 

I  will  first  examine  the  natural  method, 
beginning  with  the  elementary. 

The  untrammelled  child  in  the  nur- 
sery has  a  happy  way  of  acquiring 
knowledge  and  discipline.  His  home, 
the  little  world  in  which  he  lives,  is  now 
his  school.  The  domestic  animals,  his 
playmates,  and  his  toys  occupy  his 
attention  and  awaken  his  interest.  His 
mind  is  alive  to  every  object  his  eyes 
behold.  Full  of  inquiries  and  reflection, 
he  pursues  his  investigations,  and  makes 
rapid  progress  in  his  studies. 


82  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

And  how  does  he  learn  in  this  school 
of  nature  ? 

I  answer,  he  first  observes  the  object, 
then  learns  its  name ;  afterwards  he 
studies  its  nature  and  uses. 

The  child  never  deals  in  abstractions, 
nor  troubles  himself  about  the  unmean- 
ing elements  of  which  that  object  is 
composed.  He  cares  nothing  for  the 
etymology  of  the  name,  nor  the  sounds 
which  combined  give  it  expression.  He 
knows  it  at  sight,  and  speaks  it  without 
hesitation.  Its  utility  he  soon  discovers, 
and  values  it  only  as  he  can  turn  it  to 
some  practical  account. 

Now,  transfer  this  child  from  the  nur- 
sery to  the  district  school.  How  shall 
we  deal  with  him  and  instruct  him 
there  ?  In  his  home  school  he  has  been 
free,  and  has  had  constant  employment. 
Shall  he  now  be  imprisoned,  and  confined 
hard  benches  for  six  long  hours 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         83 

of  the  day,  and  for  five  days  of  the  week  ? 
In  the  first  place,  this  child  should  not 
be  sent  to  school  until  six  or  eight  years 
old.  And  then  he  should  spend  only  a 
part  of  the  time  in  the  schoolroom, 
with  frequent  and  longer  recesses  in  the 
open  air.  While  in  school,  special  pains 
should  be  taken  to  interest  the  pupil, 
and  occupy  his  time.  While  too  young 
to  study,  he  should  always  have  slate 
and  pencil,  or  chalk  and  blackboard,  to 
occupy  his  leisure  moments  in  drawing 
and  writing. 

But  the  child  has  come  to  school  to 
learn  to  read,  first  of  all.  How  shall  he 
be  taught  ?  By  the  word  method,  in 
distinction  from  the  alphabetic.,  if  we 
are  to  follow  the  natural  process,  and 
keep  alive  the  interest  and  zeal  which 
he  manifested  while  at  home. 

The  word-method  begins  with  words 
found  in  the  book,  and  the  child  learns 


84  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

to  read  correctly  and  fluently  a  hun- 
dred pages  in  "  Webb's  First  Reader," 
before  he  is  expected  to  know  the  name 
or  sound  of  a  single  letter. 

But  this  method  contemplates  some- 
thing more  than  learning  words.  That 
series  of  books  by  which  this  system  is 
taught  abounds  in  pictures  which  rep- 
resent the  objects  described.  The  at- 
tention of  the  child  should  first  be 
directed  to  the  picture,  and  then  to  the 
object  which  that  picture  indicates. 
Next  comes  the  word;  and,  if  that  word 
cannot  be  represented  by  an  object  or 
picture,  its  meaning  should  always  be 
explained.  The  thing  before  the  sign  is 
the  rule,  in  teaching  by  this  method, 
even  with  familiar  objects. 

Now  suppose,  for  example,  you  open 
the  book  to  the  picture  of  a  dog.  Ask 
the  child  some  such  questions  as  these : 
Did  you  ever  see  a  dog  ?  Can  you  tell 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         85 

me  the  name  of  a  dog  ?  Is  Ponto 
black,  or  white,  or  speckled  ?  Can  he 
do  any  thing  ?  What  can  he  do  ? 
Talk?  Sing?  No.  Hear?  See?  Feel? 
Eat  ?  Run  ?  Walk  ?  Yes.  Look  at  this 
picture  of  a  dog.  Is  this  a  dog  ?  A 
real  dog  ?  No,  a  picture  dog.  Can  this 
dog  hear,  see,  feel,  or  eat  ?  No.  Is  he 
like  the  real  dog  in  any  respect  ?  Yes, 
he  has  eyes,  ears,  feet,  and  tail,  and 
looks  like  the  real  dog. 

By  this  time  the  child  has  become 
deeply  interested  in  the  object  of  the 
lesson.  Now  point  him  to  the  word 
dog.  Let  him  print  it  on  his  slate,  as 
soon  as  he  is  able.  Tell  him  that  this 
word  dog  means  the  same  as  the  pic- 
ture dog,  and  that  both  represent  the 
real  dog. 

As  far  as  practicable,  teach  each  word 
in  the  same  way.  Particles  and  connec- 
tives, and  other  words  not  represented 


86  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

by  objects,  should  be  learned  with  their 
meaning,  so  as  to  be  recognized  at 
sight.  Words  descriptive  of  color  and 
actions  should  be  illustrated  by  ex- 
amples. 

When  spelling  comes  to  be  taught 
with  reading,  and  the  alphabet  to  be 
learned,  it  should  be  by  the  analysis  of 
the  words  found  in  the  reading-lesson, 
instead  of  the  old  method  of  learning 
the  A,  B,  C's,  and  spelling  columns  of 
unmeaning  words  from  the  spelling- 
book. 

The  advantages  of  the  word-method 
are  many,  some  of  which  may  here  be 
mentioned. 

1st.  The  child  knows  the  word  by  its 
looks,  as  he  knows  the  object. 

2d.  Not  being  obliged  to  spell  out 
the  word,  he  can  speak  it  without  hesi- 
tation or  drawling. 

3d.  He  learns  the  meaning  of  every 


TEE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         87 

word  in  the  lesson,  and  is  able  to  read 
with  naturalness,  as  he  would  talk. 

4th.  The  child  avoids  the  use  of 
those  symbols  and  sounds  which  the  old 
method  compels  him  to  study,  many 
months,  before  he  can  read  at  all,  and 
which  tend  to  create  disgust  both  for 
books  and  the  school. 

By  the  use  of  this  method,  much, 
therefore,  is  gained  every  way.  Time 
is  saved,  the  child's  interest  is  kept 
alive,  and  school  life  becomes  a  pastime 
instead  of  a  burden. 

And,  as  his  education  advances,  the 
same  method  of  instruction  should  be 
carried  into  all  departments  of  study. 

Denning  and  explaining  should,  as  far 
as  possible,  be  done  by  the  use  of  ob- 
jects, and  should  be  extensively  re- 
quired in  spelling,  reading,  and  every 
other  department  of  the  school.  The 
free  use  of  the  "  English  Dictionary  " 


88  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

should  be  encouraged.  No  school-book 
is  so  much  neglected  by  our  pupils,  and 
yet  no  one  is  so  important.  The  study 
of  our  own  language  should  be  made  a 
prominent  object  in  every  grade  of 
school  and  by  every  pupil. 

In  teaching  spelling,  punctuation,  and 
the  use  of  capitals,  direct  the  attention 
of  pupils  to  the  printed  page.  They 
will  then  see  correct  forms  and  uses,  and 
thus  acquire  the  habit  of  criticism  and 
correctness  in  their  own  practice.  Why 
these  capitals  are  so  used  should  be  ex- 
plained ;  and  what  variations  of  the 
voice  the  punctuation  marks  indicate 
should  be  illustrated  by  the  teacher's 
living  voice.  These  can  never  be  prac- 
tically learned  from  the  spelling-book  in 
the  old  way  of  teaching.  Such  abstract 
definitions  are  wholly  unmeaning  to  the 
child  ;  and  he  should  never  be  required 
to  learn  them,  without  practical  illustra- 
tions. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         89 

What  do  the  punctuation  marks  indi- 
cate ?  They  are  points  in  an  oration, 
where  the  reader  or  speaker  may  pause, 
for  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  to  relieve 
his  voice,  as  the  traveller  may  stop  for 
rest,  at  the  hospitable  inns  that  mark 
the  country  turnpike  en  route  to  the 
city.  And  where  are  these  inns  lo- 
cated ?  Not  as  chance  may  dictate,  but 
at  suitable  distances  for  the  conve- 
nience of  those  who  travel.  So  the 
punctuation  marks  are  placed  where 
the  voice  needs  rest,  to  indicate  the 
time  and  nature  of  the  pause,  and  to 
enable  the  reader  to  proceed  without 
weariness.  Now  let  the  pupil  hear  the 
sentence  correctly  read,  while  he  ob- 
serves the  marks  that  indicate  the  varia- 
tions and  suspensions  of  the  voice,  and 
then  let  him  read  it  correctly  himself, 
and  he  will  know  more  of  punctuation, 
than  by  six  months  of  study  upon  the 
rules  in  the  spelling-book. 


90  TEACHER'S  MANUAL, 

Object- teaching  is  Nature's  method. 
Through  the  eye  the  most  permanent 
impressions  are  made  upon  the  mind. 
Hence,  there  should  be,  in  every  school- 
room, extensive  blackboards,  globes, 
maps,  blocks,  and  such  other  apparatus 
as  can  illustrate  the  subjects  of  thought 
and  study  before  the  school;  and  the 
teacher  should  make  free  use  of  them 
in  all_  departments  of  instruction.  He 
should  train  his  pupils  to  critical  obser- 
vation, and  direct  their  attention  not 
only  to  the  subject  of  the  lesson  and  the 
objects  which  illustrate,  but  also  to  kin- 
dred subjects  and  objects  in  the  exter- 
nal world.  He  should  insist  upon 
accuracy,  and  encourage  the  correction 
of  errors,  and  thorough  investigation  of 
every  theme  that  comes  before  the 
class. 

And,  while  dealing  with  the  thoughts 
of  others,  the  child  should  be  early 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         91 

taught  to  express  his  own,  and,  as  soon 
as  he  is  capable,  to  write  on  slate  or 
paper  his  own  expressions  of  thought. 
This  is  called  the  Department  of  Compo- 
sition, the  most  neglected  of  all  depart- 
ments, and  hence  the  most  dreaded  by 
almost  every  grade  of  scholars.  If  the 
habit  of  composing  was  practised  from 
early  childhood,  the  writing  of  composi- 
tions would  be  as  easy  and  pleasant  as 
any  other  school  exercise. 

I  therefore  insist  that  the  teacher 
should  give  early  and  constant  attention 
to  this  subject. 

And  first,  the  child  should  be  taught 
to  express  the  thoughts  found  in  his 
book  or  lesson,  in  his  own  language. 
For  instance  :  a  class  in  reading  is  upon 
the  floor.  A  story,  or  an  item  of  history, 
is  the  lesson  of  the  hour.  Let  these 
children  be  told,  that,  after  that  story  is 
read,  one  and  another  of  the  class  will 


92  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

be  called  upon  to  recite  what  has  been 
read  in  his  own  way.  Few  will  be  able, 
or  will  undertake,  to  remember  the  lan- 
guage of  the  author;  but  the  thoughts 
in  their  connection  will  be  retained, 
and  expressed  with  wonderful  accuracy. 
Let  this  habit  be  cultivated  at  every 
opportunity,  and  the  child  will  not  only 
acquire  the  power  of  accurate  expres- 
sion, but  the  power  of  thought,  and  will 
soon  gain  the  ability  to  compose  and 
write  with  ease  and  propriety. 

Now  assign  to  him  such  simple  sub- 
jects as  he  can  fully  understand,  and 
such  as  especially  interest  him,  and 
require  short  but  frequent  exercises  in 
composition,  under  criticism.  Direct 
his  attention  especially  to  spelling, 
punctuation,  use  of  capitals,  and  the 
correct  arrangement  and  expression  of 
his  thoughts,  and  encourage  neatness 
and  legibility  in  his  penmanship. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         93 

And,  as  the  pupil  advances  in  his 
course,  let  this  exercise  be  varied  so  as 
to  secure  practice  in  the  various  styles 
of  writing.  Encourage  epistolary  cor- 
respondence, and  familiarity  with  all 
business  forms,  that  the  scholar  may 
acquire  a  practical  knowledge  of  the 
branches  which  he  studies. 

THE    THREE   METHODS 

of  instruction  may  now  occupy  our 
attention.  The  more  common  method 
adopted  in  our  public  schools  is  by  ques- 
tioning. Many  teachers  know  of  no 
other  way;  and  some  have  so  little 
knowledge  of  the  subjects  to  be  taught, 
that  they  demand  to  have  questions 
prepared  for  themselves,  as  well  as  for 
the  pupils. 

And  book-makers,  wise  always  in 
securing  their  own  pecuniary  interest 
(but  not  so  often  in  promoting  the  best 


94  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

good  of  our  schools),  adapt  their  books 
to  the  condition  of  the  market,  and  line 
the  margin  with  questions  to  be  used  in 
study  and  in  the  recitation.  This  is  all 
wrong,  and  is  one  of  the  indications  of 
the  superficiality  of  our  age.  The  ten- 
dency, in  all  departments  of  learning,  is 
to  skim  the  surface,  and  to  remove  the 
necessity  of  thoroughness  in  preparing 
and  reciting  lessons. 

Questioning  is  not  the  best  method  of 
instruction,  nor  can  it  ever  be  safely 
adopted  as  the  only  method.  Yet,  it 
has  its  appropriate  place  and  usefulness. 

1st.  The  teacher  may,  by  questions, 
direct  the  attention  of  the  pupil  to 
special  topics  or  thoughts,  which  have 
been  overlooked  and  omitted  in  the 
recitation.  This  will  aid  in  directing 
future  study,  and  tend  to  awaken 
new  thought  and  secure  thoroughness. 
Questioning  for  this  purpose  may  be 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         95 

more  or  less  practised  in  connection 
with  each  recitation,  as  the  topics,  one 
after  another,  come  under  re  view;  but  it 
may  never  be  substituted  for  recitation, 
nor  made  prominent  as  a  method  of 
instruction. 

2d.  Questioning  is  proper  and  useful 
also  in  conducting  reviews  and  exami- 
nations. It  enables  the  teacher  to  bring 
out,  and  fix  attention  upon,  the  promi- 
nent points  in  the  lesson,  and  to  explain 
and  remove  difficulties  as  they  come  in 
the  way.  And  it  gives  him  power  to 
ascertain  the  standing  of  the  scholar,  his 
attainments  and  defects,  and  to  direct 
and  control  his  course  of  study. 

But,  when  questioning  is  allowable, 
the  teacher  must  exercise  special  care 
as  to  the  manner  of  conducting  this 
exercise. 

He  should  never  ask  leading  ques- 
tions. This  is  forbidden  in  the  exami- 


96  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

nation  of  witnesses,  and  it  is  never 
allowable  in  the  school. 

By  leading  questions,  I  mean  such  as 
suggest  the  answer,  and  require  no 
special  knowledge  of  the  subject  to  ena- 
ble one  to  give  it  correctly.  Such  ques- 
tioning tends  to  cultivate  the  habit  of 
indolence,  and  is  destructive  of  sound 
scholarship  whenever  it  is  indulged. 

Again,  when  questioning  a  class, 
always  put  the  question  before  calling 
upon  the  scholar  to  recite. 

This  habit  leaves  all  in  doubt  who 
will  be  called  upon  to  recite,  and  makes 
it  necessary  for  all  to  be  fully  prepared, 
and  to  give  undivided  attention,  —  an 
object  which  is  indeed  worth  securing, 
and  which  can  be  secured  in  no  other 
way.  And  while  the  teacher  should  have 
special  regard  to  the  matter,  form,  and 
mode  of  his  questions,  he  should  give 
equal  attention  to  the  matter,  form,  and 
mode  of  the  answers. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.          97 

He  should  see  that  the  answer  is  con- 
fined to  the  question ;  that  it  is  concise 
and  logical;  that  it  is  given  in  correct 
language.  This  habit  of  criticism  will 
secure  accuracy  of  thought  and  expres- 
sion, and  impart  positive  knowledge. 
It  is  opposed  to  that  loose  and  vague 
method  of  study  and  expression  which 
results  in  mental  anarchy  and  confusion. 
Written  answers  have  the  advantage 
over  verbal,  as  they  bring  the  scholar 
under  rigid  examination  in  other  de- 
partments of  primary  instruction.  He 
must  expose  in  the  written  answer  his 
style  of  penmanship,  his  deficiency  in 
orthography,  use  of  capitals  and  punctu- 
ation, and  his  want  of  accuracy  and 
conciseness  in  the  form  of  expression. 
Hence,  the  teacher  should  practise  writ- 
ten examinations  as  often  as  time  will 
allow,  and  should  apply  his  criticisms  to 
all  the  departments  involved. 


98  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Lecturing  is  another  method  of  in- 
struction which  has  its  uses  and  abuses. 

A  lecture  by  the  teacher  should  never 
be  substituted  for  a  recitation  by  the 
class.  These  exercises  are  separate  and 
distinct  in  their  aim  and  results.  Many 
teachers  suppose  that  the  measure  of 
their  ability  as  instructors  is  the  power 
they  have  to  explain  and  talk  before 
their  classes;  and  hence,  spend  the  most 
of  the  hour  assigned  to  recitation,  in 
the  display  of  their  own  gift  of  speech. 
But,  in  the  recitation-room,  the  good 
teacher  has  but  little  to  say.  His  ability 
is  tested  by  his  silence  more  than  his 
loquacity;  by  his  power  to  rouse  and 
direct  the  activity  of  his  pupils,  more 
than  by  his  own  actions. 

But  there  are  times  and  places  for 
familiar  and  studied  lectures ;  and  the 
object  to  be  gained  is  two-fold. 

First,  like  reading  and  travelling,  lee- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.         99 

tures  impart  instruction.  They  present 
the  truths  of  science  in  an  attractive 
manner,  and  in  their  logical  connection. 
They  serve  for  variety,  and  fill  up  the 
vacant  hours  that  might  otherwise  be 
wasted. 

Secondly,  lectures  should  be  em- 
ployed to  accomplish  another  object; 
viz.,  to  discipline  the  pupil  in  the  habit 
of  listening.  He  may  acquire  correct 
habits  of  study,  and  accuracy  and  flu- 
ency in  recitation,  and  yet  be  a  listless 
hearer.  He  must,  therefore,  be  edu- 
cated to  listen,  as  well  as  to  study  and 
recite.  Why  do  so  many  of  those  who 
attend  divine  service  on  the  sabbath, 
come  away  very  little  interested  and 
profited,  hardly  remembering  the  text, 
and  much  less  the  theme  of  the  sermon 
as  discussed  by  the  preacher  ? 

The  answer  is  obvious.  The  audience 
have  not  been  educated  to  listen.  The 


100  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

habit  of  fixed  attention  has  not  been 
formed.  Hence,  this  department  of 
education  demands  special  attention  in 
our  schools.  Let  the  teacher  require 
the  scholar  to  repeat  whatever  may  be 
communicated  or  explained  ;  let  him  be 
required  to  take  notes,  and  recite  after 
every  formal  lecture,  and  he  will  soon 
acquire  the  power  and  habit  of  following 
the  speaker  and  comprehending  his  dis- 
course. Whole  subjects  may  be  profita- 
bly studied  and  thoroughly  learned  in 
this  way,  if  the  teacher  requires  a  care- 
ful recitation  after  every  lecture ;  but  the 
greatest  advantage  to  be  gained  from 
the  public  lecture  is  the  habit  of  listen- 
ing with  fixed  attention. 

But  neither  questioning  nor  lecturing 
is  the  true  method  of  instruction,  but 
independent  Topical  Recitation.  This 
should  be  required  of  every  class,  in 
every  school,  whenever  the  subject  will 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       101 

admit  of  it.  No  other  method  can 
secure  the  end  to  be  accomplished. 
This  will  appear  in  the  answer  to  the 
inquiry  ;  what  is  the  end  of  study,  reci- 
tation, and  instruction  ? 

Not  the  attainment  of  knowledge,  but 
discipline.  The  results  of  education  are 
illustrated,  not  by  the  golden  cup  filled 
to  the  brim,  but  by  the  swelling  buds 
developed  into  blossoms  and  ripe  fruit, 
through  the  genial  influences  of  light, 
heat,  and  moisture.  Education,  then,  is 
not  the  storing  of  knowledge,  but  the 
development  of  power ;  and  the  law  of 
development  is  through  exercise.  And 
study  and  recitation  are  the  principal 
agencies  to  be  employed  in  this  process 
of  training.  Instruction  is  useful  and 
important  only  so  far  as  it  secures, 
directs,  and  controls  earnest  study  and 
careful  recitation.  Any  system  of  in- 
struction, therefore,  which  weakens  the 


102  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

motive,  or  removes  the  necessity  of 
laborious  thinking  and  independent 
expression,  is  false  in  theory  and  ruin- 
ous in  practice.  Hence,  I  condemn  the 
"  drawing-out  "  and  the  "  pouring-in  " 
systems,  if  either  is  the  only  or  princi- 
pal one  adopted. 

The  scholar  must  learn  to  think  by 
thinking.  No  book  or  teacher  can 
think  for  him.  And  he  must  learn  the 
power  of  expression  by  reciting  ;  and 
this  is  the  only  practical  power  that  is 
gained  by  him,  in  the  whole  process  of 
education. 

Allow  study-hours  to  be  interrupted, 
and  you,  in  the  same  degree,  rob  your 
scholars  of  mental  discipline,  and  toler- 
ate among  them,  mental  dissipation. 
Deprive  them  of  the  privilege  of  in- 
dividual and  daily  recitations,  and  you 
rob  them  of  half  the  benefit  of  the 
school.  The  lesson  must  be  learned  by 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      103 

patient  and  earnest  study,  but  this  is 
not  enough :  it  must  be  recited  again 
and  again,  under  the  criticism  of  the 
accurate  teacher,  to  make  available 
the  knowledge  and  discipline  attained. 
And,  as  a  means  of  developing  practical 
ability  in  different  departments  of  life, 
school  recitation  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. 

As  recitation  is  wholly  the  work  of  the 
scholar,  he  should  recite  independently, 
and,  as  intimated,  topically,  as  far  as 
possible.  If  the  lesson  contains  cap- 
tions, mathematical  definitions  and 
tables,  or  fixed  rules,  they  should  be 
accurately  recited  in  the  words  of  the 
author ;  but,  in  every  other  kind  of  reci- 
tation, the  expression  of  the  thoughts 
which  the  pupil  has  acquired  by  study 
should  be  embodied  in  his  own  lan- 
guage. The  mind  should  be  the  deposi- 
tory of  thoughts,  and  not  of  mere  words 


104  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

and  signs.  The  object  of  the  recitation 
is  not  only  to  express  these  thoughts  in 
their  logical  order,  but  to  acquire  an 
accurate  and  free  use  of  language. 

Like  the  parrot,  the  scholar  may  re- 
cite the  words  of  the  author,  with  little 
or  no  knowledge  of  the  subject,  and 
without  interest  or  profit ;  but,  by  the 
expression  of  thoughts  in  his  own  lan- 
guage, he  makes  them  his  own,  and 
acquires  the  power  of  using  them. 

In  the  class-recitation  the  pupil 
should  be  required  to  stand  while  recit- 
ing. He  will  thus  be  brought  out 
prominently  before  the  class,  and  will 
acquire  the  habit  of  thinking  and  speak- 
ing in  that  exposed  position.  This  will 
give  him  confidence  and  self-control. 
It  should  never  be  known  beforehand  in 
what  order  the  class  will  be  called  upon 
to  recite ;  or  I  may  as  well  say,  no  order 
of  recitation  should  be  adopted  by  the 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      105 

teacher.  He  will  then  be  at  liberty  to 
call  up  the  idle  and  inattentive,  and  to 
vary  his  process  as  circumstances  re- 
quire. And,  if  it  cannot  be  known  by 
the  members  whose  "turn  comes  next," 
each  will  be  obliged  to  learn  the  whole 
lesson,  and  will  be  prepared  to  recite 
any  part  of  it. 

Language  furnishes  the  chief  means 
of  expression ;  hence,  topical  recitation 
is  the  true  method  of  instruction.  But 
some  thoughts  cannot  be  expressed  in 
words.  They  must  be  drawn  out  in 
figures,  diagrams,  and  maps.  Whole 
chapters  of  history  may  be  written  out 
in  a  finely-executed  picture ;  and  some- 
tunes  even  words  are  better  expressed 
in  silence  than  by  sounds.  All  these 
are  methods  of  recitation,  and  each  has 
its  own  place  and  utility. 

Again,  the  skilful  teacher  will  adapt 
his  instruction  to  the  capacity,  attain- 


106  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

ments,  and  dispositions  of  his  pupils. 
He  finds  in  every  school  a  great  va- 
riety, and  cannot  properly  include  all 
under  the  same  process  of  training. 
Some  have  enjoyed  better  advantages 
than  others,  at  home  and  abroad  ;  some 
are  bright,  and  others  stupid ;  some 
are  timid,  and  others  bold  and  self- 
sufficient. 

Now,  each  of  those  classes  requires 
special  treatment,  and  that  teacher  is 
wise,  and  will  be  eminently  successful, 
who  is  able  to  adapt  his  treatment  and 
instruction  to  the  wants  of  each  and  all. 

And  let  him  never  forget  the  cardinal 
principle  in  education,  that  each  mind 
must  be  tasked.  This  is  necessary  for 
the  easy  scholar,  as  really  as  for  the 
dull.  It  is  discipline,  and  not  talent 
alone,  that  gives  mental  power.  Genius 
even  cannot  supply  the  place  of  disci- 
pline. Every  teacher,  therefore,  must 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      107 

see  to  it  that  each  pupil  is  so  classified  as 
to  be  required  to  perform  a  full  amount 
of  mental  labor.  Let  his  time  be  fully 
occupied  by  earnest  application,  if  you 
expect  him  to  become  successful  in 
school,  or  in  life. 

Mere  scholarship  does  not  make  the 
man.  Every  experienced  educator  in 
the  nation  can  bear  testimony  to  this 
truth.  No  teacher  in  the  academy, 
seminary,  or  college,  has  failed  to  see  all 
his  calculations  as  to  the  comparative 
ability  of  different  members  of  his  class, 
when  measured  by  class-recitation,  en- 
tirely subverted.  In  active  life,  the 
brilliant  scholar  who  has  spent  but  little 
time  over  his  lessons,  yet  claims  to  bear 
off  all  the  honors  of  his  class,  is  often 
compelled  to  step  aside,  and  see  his  less 
scholarly  but  more  industrious  and  labo- 
rious companion  upon  whom  he  may 
have  looked  with  contempt,  outstrip 


JOS  TEA  CHER '8  MANUAL. 

him,  and  come  up  to  occupy  positions 
which  he  could  not  fill.  College  marks 
made  the  boasting  genius  a  "  Phi-Be- 
tian,"  and  gave  him  the  valedictory ; 
but  the  world  has  reversed  the  decision, 
and  awarded  the  merit  and  the  honor  to 
him  who  has  paved  his  way  to  distinc- 
tion and  usefulness  by  toil  and  sweat 
and  tears.  The  college  will  never 
abandon  its  own  marking,  as  the  stand- 
ard of  honorable  position,  nor  fail  to 
withhold  merited  honor  from  all  who 
were  not  found  among  its  favored  few 
in  the  days  of  "  Greek  roots  "  and  Latin 
terminations.  And  still  there  is  no 
other  standard  of  greatness  in  the 
world,  no  other  test  of  honorable 
distinction,  except  that  ability  which 
has  been  tested  by  successful  action. 
The  ablest  man  in  any  sphere  of  life  is 
he  who  has  accomplished  the  most  in 
that  sphere.  He  may  have  marked  low, 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       109 

but  he  stands  high,  in  spite  of  the  false 
judgment  which  had  been  passed  upon 
him. 

It  has  been  stated  that  "  Gen.  Grant 
graduated  at  the  middle  of  his  class." 
Some  one  has  commented  upon  this 
statement  as  follows  :  "  And  Lee  gradu- 
ated well  up  toward  the  head.  That 
was  many  years  ago.  Subsequently  at 
Appomattox,  Grant  passed  to  the  head, 
and  Lee  went  to  the  foot.  One  began 
moderately,  and  ended  well ;  the  other 
commenced  admirably  and  finished  ill." 
This  example  serves  to  illustrate. 

I  would  not  intimate  that  scholarly 
ability  is  not  desirable,  but  this  is  not 
always  tested  by  college  marks.  Nor 
would  I  deny  that  cultivated  scholarship 
is  one  condition  of  obtaining  high  pro- 
fessional distinction.  But  it  often  hap- 
pens that  the  brilliant  scholar  is  sadly 
deficient  in  those  manly  qualities  which 


110  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

are  the  guarantee  of  success  in  life,  — 
common  sense,  untiring  industry,  energy, 
and  perseverance.  And,  when  these  are 
wanting,  mere  scholarship  fails  to  make 
him  great.  Even  brilliant  talents  are 
developed  only  by  culture.  Long  and 
patient  toil  is  the  price  of  merited 
honor.  He  who  has  gained  the  high- 
est walks  of  professional  life  has  risen, 
step  by  step,  not  by  genius,  but  by 
labor. 

Hence,  we  see  the  reason  why  the 
comparatively  dull  and  timid  scholar 
outstrips  the  easy  and  self-sufficient. 
He  relies  upon  his  industry,  while  his 
companion  relies  upon  talent;  he  toils 
while  his  fellow-student  is  idle ;  and, 
therefore,  when  the  two  come  into  the 
world,  to  meet  its  trials  and  endure  its 
hardships,  the  man  who  has  boasted  of 
his  scholarship,  and  wasted  his  time  in 
ease  and  sport,  fails ;  while  his  less 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      Ill 

gifted  but  better  disciplined  companion 
succeeds. 

Each  mind  must,  therefore,  be  tasked 
to  be  educated.  The  kind  and  number 
of  studies  assigned  to  these  two  classes 
must  be  determined  by  the  ability  and 
attainments  of  each.  If  one  individual 
has  power  to  learn  only  one  or  two  les- 
sons well,  that  is  all  that  should  be 
required  of  him.  But  his  fellow,  who 
can  accomplish  twice  as  much  in  the 
same  time,  should  have  two  or  four  les- 
sons, as  the  case  may  be.  Compel  each 
scholar  to  do  all  he  is  able  to  do,  and 
then  all  will  be  equally  benefited  by 
the  discipline  of  school  life.  Require 
the  easy  scholar  to  do  only  what  the 
dull  can  accomplish,  and  you  rob  him 
of  half  the  benefit. 

Treat  the  dull  scholar  with  stimulants, 
and  such  encouragement,  help,  and  pres- 
sure as  he  needs  to  secure  earnest 


112  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

application.  Instruct  the  easy  scholar 
as  little  as  may  be,  but  task  him  as 
much  as  he  will  bear.  You  will  thus 
develop  in  both  whatever  of  ability  they 
possess,  and  prepare  them  for  some 
sphere  of  honor  and  usefulness. 

The  self-sufficient  will  boast  that  they 
have  no  need  of  study  ;  that  they  know 
by  intuition  all  that  is  worth  knowing. 
They  will  try  the  teacher  with  hard 
problems ;  and,  if  he  refuses  or  fails  to 
solve  them,  they  will  report  him  incom- 
petent to  instruct  the  school.  They  are 
noisy  and  impudent,  and  a  nuisance  in 
the  school,  as  they  will  be  in  life,  unless 
they  are  cured  while  under  school  disci- 
pline. Now,  it  is  the  teacher's  duty  to 
adopt  a  special  process  of  training  for 
this  class  of  scholars. 

Put  them  under  rigid  treatment  in 
the  school,  and  under  severe  pressure  in 
the  class-room.  Try  them  with  hard 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       113 

questions.  Hold  them  at  the  black- 
board, and  in  independent  recitations, 
until  they  have  exposed  their  ignorance 
and  measured  their  ability  and  attain- 
ments by  the  true  standard.  In  a  word, 
humble  such  scholars,  and  show  them 
their  place  and  the  necessity  of  study 
and  good  behavior. 

The  timid  scholar  deserves  the  special 
interest  and  attention  of  the  teacher. 

He  has  been  neglected  at  home,  and 
abused  at  school.  He  has  been  the  butt 
of  ridicule  and  the  sport  of  fools,  until 
he  has  lost  all  self-respect  and  self-reli- 
ance, and  dares  not  even  call  his  soul 
his  own.  This  class  of  pupils  needs  the 
sympathy  and  protection  of  the  teacher, 
and  should  have  his  special  encourage- 
ment. Rebuke  and  punish  every  in- 
sult offered  them.  Treat  them  kindly 
and  with  attention.  Assure  them  of 
their  ability  to  succeed,  and  encourage 


114  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

them  to  make  application.  Convince 
them  that  brilliant  scholarship  is  not 
the  only  condition  of  success  in  life  ; 
that  hard  study  alone  educates ;  that  a 
failure  to  overcome  difficulties,  if  at- 
tended with  sufficient  effort,  may  prove 
more  beneficial  than  success ;  and  that 
thorough  discipline  of  mind,  industry,  and 
perseverance  have  elevated  many  timid 
and  obscure  boys  to  positions  of  emi- 
nence and  usefulness.  Be  faithful  to 
this  neglected  and  abused  class  of 
pupils,  and  you  will  deserve  and  obtain 
the  lasting  gratitude  of  many  who  will 
rise  from  obscurity  to  eminence  through 
your  encouragement  and  influence. 

The  tree  of  knowledge  that  grows  in 
the  educational  garden  is  also  a  tree  of 
discipline.  Its  stately  and  well  -formed 
trunk,  its  symmetrical  limbs,  its  flowing 
leaves,  its  beautiful  flowers,  and  its  rich 
fruit  are  charming  to  the  eye  and  to  the 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       115 

taste,  and  form  a  refreshing  shade  for 
the  weary  pilgrims  of  science.  Gushing 
springs  flow  forth  from  its  roots  to 
quench  their  thirst.  Singing  birds  pour 
forth  their  richest  music  from  its 
branches. 

But  the  ease  and  pleasure  here  to  be 
enjoyed  are  for  those  only  who  come  to 
toil,  and  whose  weariness  is  the  result  of 
successful  efforts  to  pluck  the  fruit  of 
that  tree. 

By  this  comparison  may  be  illustrated 
not  only  the  nature  and  end  of  educa- 
tion, but  the  methods  of  instruction 
adapted  to  the  different  grades  of  schol- 
arship and  attainments  found  in  our 
schools. 

The  fruit  of  our  tree  is  knowledge ; 
but  this,  though  desirable,  is  not  the 
end  of  education.  The  greatest  benefit 
to  be  derived  is  from  the  discipline  in 
plucking  the  fruit.  If  knowledge  could 


116  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

be  obtained  by  intuition,  or  without 
effort,  it  would  avail  but  little  as  a  prep- 
aration for  the  stern  duties  of  life. 

Hence,  special  care  must  be  exercised 
by  the  teacher  lest  the  easy  scholar  gain 
only  knowledge.  He  can  reach  the 
highest  branches,  and  pluck  the  fruit 
without  aid.  He  needs  no  instruction; 
would  be  injured  by  having  it.  Such  a 
scholar  may  be  directed  and  encouraged, 
but  not  assisted  so  long  as  he  is  able  to 
gain  his  object  by  his  own  effort,  even 
though  it  may  cost  him  much  toil  and 
pain.  This  rule  holds  good  with  all 
grades  of  scholars.  No  one  should  be 
helped  while  he  has  power  to  help 
himself. 

But  some  need  more  instruction  than 
others.  They  can  reach  only  the  lower 
branches  on  the  tree  of  knowledge. 
These  should  be  encouraged  to  make 
the  greatest  possible  effort,  and  then  be 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      117 

assisted  to  reach  and  climb  still  higher, 
but  never  lifted  while  they  have  the 
power  of  climbing. 

The  third  class  of  scholars  of  which 
we  have  spoken  can  pluck  no  fruit  at 
all.     They  cannot  reach  even  the  lowest 
branches ;  or,  at  least,  they  think  they 
cannot.      Deal  gently  and  kindly  with 
such.     Perhaps  an  encouraging  word,  or 
inspiring  thought,  will  give  them  this 
power.     They  may  need  nothing  more. 
If  they  do,  bend  down  the  limbs,  but 
only  so  far  as  to  enable  them  to  reach 
the   fruit   by  earnest  effort.      You  will 
thus   inspire   them   with    courage    and 
self-reliance,   and   lead   them   to    make 
successful  efforts  for  their  own  improve- 
ment.    They  will  thus  be  educated.     All 
these   different   classes   will   be  tasked, 
and  gather  fruit  only  as  they  are  disci- 
plined.    Some  general  suggestions  upon 
the  subject  of  instruction  will  now  be 
made. 


118  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

And,  first,  teach  subjects  and  not 
books.  School-books  are  convenient 
and  useful  only  so  far  as  they  present 
the  subjects  under  discussion  in  a  suita- 
ble form  for  study  and  recitation.  They 
are  often  inaccurate,  and  ill  adapted  to 
the  schoolroom.  They  are  not  unfre- 
quently,  in  these  days,  so  simplified  by 
illustrations  and  explanations,  that  all 
necessity  for  hard  study  is  removed,  and 
hence,  superficial  habits  of  scholarship 
are  induced.  In  such  cases,  school- 
books  become  a  positive  injury,  and 
hinderance  to  sound  learning. 

Again,  books  are  soon  exhausted,  while 
the  subjects  of  which  they  treat  are  inex- 
haustible. They  should,  therefore,  never 
be  studied  as  books,  and  only  as  helps  in 
the  thorough  examination  of  the  sub- 
ject. Let  the  science  of  arithmetic, 
geography,  or  grammar  be  presented  to 
the  scholar  or  the  class,  with  the  un- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       119 

derstanding  that  the  principles  and  the 
facts  upon  which  that  science  is  based 
are  the  theme  for  investigation.  The 
blackboard,  the  text-book,  and  the 
book  of  reference,  are  to  be  used  and 
studied  by  'the  teacher  and  the  scholar, 
until  the  subject  is  fully  understood  and 
mastered.  Used  in  this  way,  the  book 
is  forgotten,  while  the  principles,  with 
their  practical  application,  become  a 
part  of  the  mental  capital  stored  away 
in  the  scholar's  mind  for  future  use. 
As  a  banker,  he  can  add  his  column  of 
figures,  cast  his  interest,  make  his  in- 
dorsement, balance  his  account,  with  no 
thought  of  the  authors  he  has  studied, 
whether  Adams,  Greenleaf,  or  Eaton ; 
as  a  speaker  and  writer,  he  uses  cor- 
rectly the  English  language,  without  a 
thought  of  old  Murray,  or  "  Gould 
Brown's  Grammar  of  Grammars  ;  "  as  a 
geographer,  he  understands  latitude 


120  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

and  longitude,  the  location  of  cities, 
the  boundary,  climate,  productions,  gov- 
ernment and  religion  of  countries,  and 
all  the  important  principles  and  facts 
connected  with  this  science  ;  but  he  has 
forgotten  the  author  whose  well-drawn 
maps  and  pictures  aided  him  'in  the 
study  of  the  subject. 

So  the  "  well-read "  physician  be- 
comes entirely  familiar  with  disease,  in 
all  its  forms,  and  its  remedies,  but  does 
not  need  to  consult  his  books  before  he 
can  amputate  a  limb,  or  prescribe  for  a 
fever. 

But  books,  and  books  only,  are  taught 
in  a  large  majority  of  our  common 
schools ;  and  so  superficially  taught,  that 
our  scholars  leave  the  school  with  but 
little  definite  and  practical  knowledge 
of  the  subject.  This  crying  evil  should 
be  corrected. 

Again,  allow  me  to  suggest,  —  teach 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       121 

classes.  By  this,  I  mean  that  all  the 
important  principles  and  difficult  exam- 
ples, should  be  brought  out  and  ex- 
plained before  the  class,  but  to  individ- 
uals only  by  way  of  repetition,  as  the 
circumstances  of  the  case  require.  This 
should  be  done  as  a  matter  of  economy 
of  time.  It  costs  no  more  to  explain  a 
principle  to  a  class  of  ten,  than  to  an  in- 
dividual ;  hence,  the  class-system  will 
give  ten  times  as  much  instruction  in 
the  six  hours  of  the  day  as  the  individ- 
ual system.  Besides,  class  instruc- 
tion creates  more  interest,  ambition, 
and  rivalry.  And  as  still  another  ad- 
vantage, class-instruction  enables  the 
teacher  to  cultivate  in  his  pupils  the 
habit  of  self-reliance.  He  should  ex- 
plain no  principle  until  the  class  have 
failed  to  understand  it.  One  fails,  and 
another,  and  perhaps  still  another;  but 
the  fourth  is  able  to  explain.  Let  him 


122  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

take  the  floor,  and  then  submit  the 
question  again  to  the  class.  The 
teacher's  time  to  instruct  is  after  all 
have  toiled  in  vain  to  see  the  light. 

Another  idea :  instruct  only  so  much 
as  is  necessary  to  show  the  pupil  how  to 
study,  and  keep  him  from  discourage- 
ment. Let  him  do  the  work,  while  you 
point  out  the  way,  and  encourage  his 
application.  And,  if  he  asks  for  light, 
give  him  only  twilight.  This  is  Nature's 
method  of  imparting  light  to  the  world. 
First,  in  the  morning,  the  darkness  is 
relieved  by  the  glimmering  twilight ; 
and  by  imperceptible  degrees  it  steals 
upon  us,  more  and  more,  until  we  bask 
in  the  full  blaze  of  noon-day.  The  anx- 
ious scholar  sees  but  dimly  the  principle 
and  the  fact.  He  longs  for  more  light. 
Encourage  him  to  struggle  for  it,  and 
let  it  in  upon  him  slowly,  and  only  as  he 
needs  it. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       123 

Let  it  here  be  written  in  italics, 
though  it  be  a  repetition  of  the  thought 
elsewhere  expressed,  never  remove  a 
difficulty  which  the  scholar  has  the 
power  to  remove.  If  this  golden  rule 
be  adopted  and  adhered  to  by  the 
teacher,  discipline  will  be  secured,  and 
the  habit  of  self-reliance  cultivated. 

Allow  no  interruptions  during  the 
time  of  recitation,  except  in  indispensa- 
ble cases.  When  this  rule  is  departed 
from  by  the  teacher,  as  it  often  is, 
the  school  becomes  a  scene  of  unmin- 
gled  confusion.  The  teacher  is  at  the 
mercy  of  circumstances ;  study  in  the 
school-room  is  impossible  ;  the  recitation 
becomes  a  farce. 

In  such  a  school,  the  call  for  a  class  to 
come  to  recitation  is  the  watch-word  for 
the  general  rally,  for  all  the  little  urchins 
to  supply  their  numerous  wants.  Tom 
has  left  his  slate  on  a  distant  bench,  and 


124  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

wishes  to  go  for  it;  Sam  is  cold,  and 
wants  to  go  to  the  stove  and  warm  him- 
self; Dick  asks  to  speak,  that  he  may 
find  where  his  lesson  begins ;  Harry 
wants  to  go  out ;  Peter  comes  to  the 
teacher  to  ask  for  the  pronunciation  of  a 
word,  the  solution  of  an  example,  or  to 
tell  him  that  Sam  has  pulled  his  hair. 
So  question  upon  question  is  asked,  and 
movement  upon  movement  is  inaugu- 
rated, until  the  school  becomes  a  Bed- 
lam where  anarchy  reigns.  And  all  this 
time  the  teacher  is  attempting  to  hear  a 
recitation ! 

We  want  no  other  evidence  of  the 
incompetency  of  a  teacher,  or  assurance 
of  his  utter  failure,  than  the  fact  that 
he  allows  such  interruptions  during  the 
hours  assigned  to  recitation. 

Have  it  distinctly  understood  from 
the  beginning  of  the  school,  that  the 
time  devoted  to  recitation  must  be 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.  125 

sacred  to  that  purpose ;  that  no  ques- 
tions or  other  interruptions  can  be 
allowed.  It  has  already  been  suggested 
that  a  time  be  set  apart  for  irregulari- 
ties which  must  occur  in  every  school, 
that  good  order  and  quiet  may  be  main- 
tained in  study  and  recitation  hours. 
This  is  indispensable. 

I  have  said,  allow  no  questions  during 
recitation  hours.  As  a  substitute,  allow 
the  raising  of  the  hand,  as  a  signal  of 
want.  You  can  easily  tell  at  a  glance 
whether  the  child  needs  your  attention 
or  not.  If  it  is  evident  that  the  signal 
indicates  only  mischief  or  restlessness, 
as  it  generally  does,  give  it  no  attention, 
and  weariness  of  muscles  will  soon  settle 
the  difficulty.  If  the  case  is  really  an 
exception,  it  should,  of  course,  have 
your  attention. 

Another  practical  suggestion  in  this 
connection  is,  —  strive  to  make  the  reci- 


126  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

tation  attractive  and  interesting.  This 
requires  thought  and  professional  skill. 
The  teacher  should  carefully  study  each 
lesson  before  meeting  the  class,  not 
merely  to  enable  him  to  understand 
what  he  teaches,  but  to  be  able  so  to 
conduct  the  recitation  that  he  will 
awaken  and  keep  alive  the  interest  of 
his  pupils.  He  must  make  himself 
familiar  with  illustrations  drawn  from 
kindred  subjects  and  from  the  external 
world,  and  adopt  new  and  varied 
methods  of  instruction.  He  will  gain 
much  reputation  and  power  in  the 
schoolroom,  by  preparing  himself  to 
conduct  recitations  without  the  use  of 
the  text-book ;  and  he  should  never 
allow  the  scholars  to  use  their  books, 
except  when,  under  his  direction,  they 
are  needed  for  reference  in  solving 
examples  or  explaining  principles. 
Independence  in  this  regard  will  serve 


THE  DISCIPLINE'  OF  THE  SCHOOL.        127 

to  awaken  confidence  and  new  interest 
in  the  minds  of  the  pupils,  and  enable 
the  teacher  to  make  the  class  recitation 
much  more  attractive. 

But,  after  all,  the  grand  test  of  the 
teacher's  ability,  and  the  secret  of  his 
success,  is  found  in  his  power  to  inspire 
his  pupils  with  earnestness  and  enthu- 
siasm in  the  business  of  the  school.  To 
wake  up  mind  is  his  first  and  most  im- 
portant work.  And,  if  successful  in  this, 
he  is  at  once  master  of  his  situation.  A 
school  w^holly  absorbed  in  study  has  no 
time  nor  disposition  for  idleness  or  mis- 
chief. Good  order  is  secured  without 
external  appliances  ;  cheerfulness  and 
industry  everywhere  prevail ;  study  and 
recitation  are  no  longer  a  task,  but  a 
pastime  ;  in  a  word,  the  grand  object  of 
school  life  is  attained.  Hence  it  be- 
comes a  matter  of  great  importance  to 
learn  the  art  of  inspiration. 


128  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

And,  first,  it  may  be  here  remarked, 
"  as  is  the  teacher,"  in  this  and  every 
other  respect,  "  so  is  the  school."  A 
noisy  teacher  makes  a  noisy  school ;  a 
rude  and  clownish  teacher  imparts  his 
rudeness  to  his  pupils ;  an  indolent  and 
stupid  teacher  begets  indolence  and 
stupidity,  which  brood  like  a  cloud  of 
darkness  over  the  school.  So  will  life, 
energy,  and  enthusiasm  in  the  teacher 
serve  to  awaken  thought,  to  encourage 
application,  and  to  inspire  zeal  in  all 
who  come  under  his  influence.  And 
inspiration  is  what  the  pupil  needs  more 
than  help. 

The  true  teacher  is  alive  and  in  ear- 
nest ;  his  heart  throbs  with  tenderness 
and  emotion ;  his  blood  flows  freely 
through  his  veins,  and  imparts  fresh- 
ness, cheerfulness,  and  vigor  to  his  whole 
being.  Enthusiasm  speaks  out  in  his 
voice,  glows  in  his  countenance,  flashes 


THE  DISCIPLINE   OF  THE  SCHOOL.        129 

from  his  eye,  streams  from  his  fingers, 
and  infuses  itself  like  leaven  through 
the  whole  school. 

And  this  animating  influence  of  the 
earnest  teacher  is  not  confined  to  the 
schoolroom.  It  is  felt  in  the  neighbor- 
hood ;  it  is  manifest  in  the  families 
where  the  children  spend  their  evening 
hours  in  study  instead  of  playing  in  the 
streets,  and  where  parents  interest  them- 
selves in  the  school  more  than  in  the 
training  of  animals  or  raising  of  crops. 
In  a  word,  the  enthusiasm  of  the  true 
teacher  has  a  power  for  good  that  has 
not  yet  been  estimated.  It  brings  order 
out  of  confusion,  light  out  of  darkness, 
and  awakes  to  activity  the  slumbering 
powers  of  intellect,  as  it  were  life  from 
the  dead. 

If  we  had  in  active  service  more  of 
these  live  teachers,  we  should  have 
better  schools  and  much  more  general 


130  TEACHER'S  MANUAL, 

interest  manifested  in  the  cause  of  edu- 
cation. 

I  may  here  suggest  that  there  is  much 
incorrect  instruction  given  in  our  schools. 
Many  teachers  know  only  what  they  find 
in  books,  and  even  that  is  but  partially 
understood ;  and  they  impart  only  what 
they  know.  They  neither  investigate 
themselves,  nor  encourage  their  scholars 
to  inquire  as  to  the  correctness  of  the 
assumed  facts,  as  found  in  text-books. 
Hence,  fiction  is  received  for  fact,  and 
theory  for  principle. 

For  instance,  the  book  says,  and  a 
majority  of  teachers  believe,  that  the 
axis  of  the  earth  is  "  an  imaginary  line 
extending  from  pole  to  pole."  But 
what  is  a  real  line  ?  Simply  distance, 
or  the  extension  of  a  point.  And  is 
there  not  real  distance  between  the 
north  and  south  poles  of  the  earth  ?  It 
must  be  so ;  and  hence,  the  axis  of  the 


THE  DISCIPLINE   OF  THE  SCHOOL.        131 

earth  is  a  real  line,  not  an  imaginary 
one.  Often  we  are  told  by  both  teachers 
and  scholars,  that  simple  subtraction  is 
"  taking  one  number  from  another." 
But  in  the  process  of  subtraction  noth- 
ing is  taken  away  from  the  larger  num- 
ber in  the  example.  It  is  simply  a 
comparison  between  the  two  numbers  to 
find  their  difference. 

We  inquire  how  many  fundamental 
rules  in  arithmetic  ?  The  answer  given 
is,  "  Six."  But  what  is  arithmetic  ? 
A  science  of  number.  What  is  num- 
ber ?  "  That  which  admits  of  being 
counted  or  reckoned."  What  can  we 
do  with  numbers  ?  Put  them  together 
(add),  and  take  them  apart  (subtract). 
We  can  do  the  same  with  broken  num- 
bers ;  we  can  do  nothing  more  with 
numbers,  whether  whole  or  broken. 
Hence,  there  is,  there  can  be,  but  two 
fundamental  rules  in  arithmetic.  Nota- 


132  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

tion  and  numeration  teach  the  language 
of  arithmetic.  Multiplication  and  divis- 
ion are  only  shorter  methods  of  adding 
and  subtracting. 

Fractions  are  sometimes  said  to  be 
"  broken  numbers."  But  this  definition 
gives  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  what  a 
fraction  is.  Broken  numbers  are  as 
really  whole  numbers  as  the  unit  which 
they  composed.  Each  of  the  one  hun- 
dred and  two  asteroids  is  as  really  a 
whole  number,  as  was  the  original 
planet  before  it  was  broken.  Every 
fractional  part  of  every  unit,  however 
small  it  may  be,  is  itself  a  unit  when 
considered  alone,  and  "  all  are  but  parts 
of  one  stupendous  whole."  There  is 
then,  properly  speaking,  but  one  unit  in 
the  universe,  and  that  is  the  universe 
itself.  Adhere  to  the  correct  definition, 
and  you  are  safe  in  giving  instructions 
on  this  subject,  —  "PARTS  OF  ONE  AEE 

CALLED  FRACTIONS." 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.        133 

It  is  not  enough  to  explain  principles : 
you  should  also  give  facts  in  all  depart- 
ments of  instruction.  Thoroughness  in 
giving  instruction  requires  special  atten- 
tion to  first  principles.  In  nothing  are 
our  public  schools  so  deficient.  It  is  a 
rare  thing  to  find  a  scholar  in  the  rural 
districts  who  is  really  a  good  speller  and 
reader,  and  who  understands  thoroughly 
the  principles  of  mental  arithmetic  and 
grammar,  and  the  facts  in  geography 
and  history.  Yet  the  common  school 
is  the  very  place  where  these  branches 
should  be  mastered.  Go  to  our  higher 
seminaries  of  learning,  and  you  will 
find  a  multitude  of  students  who  are 
pursuing  the  higher  mathematics,  natu- 
ral and  mental  sciences,  the  living  and 
dead  languages,  music  and  painting, 
and  yet  they  could  not  explain  simple 
subtraction,  nor  write  a  respectable  let- 
ter of  business  or  friendship,  to  save 


184  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

their  lives.  In  penmanship,  orthog- 
raphy, punctuation,  the  use  of  capitals, 
and  in  forms  of  expression,  they  are 
sadly  deficient.  These  defects  are  all 
exposed  in  a  single  letter. 

In  a  recent  examination  at  West 
Point  Academy,  several  cadets  who  had 
come  well  recommended  from  the  acad- 
emies of  the  country,  and  had  made 
commendable  attainments  in  academic 
studies,  were  found  so  deficient  in  ele- 
mentary branches,  that  they  were  re- 
jected. Such  facts  illustrate  the  in- 
efficiency of  our  common  schools,  and 
show  the  importance  of  special  attention 
to  this  department  of  instruction.  To 
meet  the  evil,  our  teachers  must  have 
a  thorough  training  in  the  primary 
branches.  This  should  be  given  them 
in  our  academies  and  seminaries  ;  and 
especially  may  we  depend  upon  our 
normal  schools  to  impart  this  thorough 
instruction. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.        135 

And,  in  the  second  place,  the  first  and 
chief  attention  of  our  teachers,  in  the 
district  school,  must  be  given  to  the  ele- 
mentary branches.  .  No  teacher  has  any 
right  to  allow  the  higher  English 
branches  or  languages  a  place  in  these 
schools,  to  the  neglect  of  reading,  spell- 
ing, arithmetic,  grammar,  and  geogra- 
phy. We  are  sometimes  told  that  the 
common-school  teacher  is  not  qualified 
for  his  position,  and  ought  to  be  ashamed 
of  himself,  if  he  is  not  prepared  to 
teach  such  studies  as  algebra,  geometry, 
and  surveying.  It  is  true  that  the 
study  of  these  subjects  would  give  him 
more  discipline,  and  enable  him  to 
teach  more  successfully  the  elementary 
branches.  So  far,  very  well ;  but  he 
need  not  blush  to  say  to  his  pupils,  "  I 
cannot  teach  you  surveying,  or  the 
dead  languages."  He  is  not  there  for 
that  purpose  ;  and,  if  he  can  teach  well 


136  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

what  is  required  of  him  by  the  laws  of 
the  State,  he  has  no  occasion  to  be  mor- 
tified, and  has  no  right  to  do  more  if 
he  could. 

Thoroughness  requires  that  each 
pupil  shall  be  drilled  daily  in  those 
branches  which  are  adapted  to  his 
standing  and  attainments.  Class-drills 
must  be  followed  up  by  the  special  drill 
of  each  individual,  to  be  modified  by  the 
circumstances  and  peculiarities  of  each 
scholar. 

Again,  thoroughness  contemplates 
frequent  and  accurate  reviews.  No  re- 
view can  be  well  recited  unless  the  les- 
son has  been  carefully  studied ;  and 
hence,  reviews  serve  to  make  up  all 
losses  and  deficiencies.  They  serve  also 
to  fix  in  the  memory  what  would  other- 
wise be  lost.  There  should  be  daily 
reviews  of  all  that  was  recited  the  pre- 
vious day ;  weekly  reviews  of  the  les- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.        137 

sons  of  the  previous  week ;  monthly 
reviews  of  each  month's  work,  and  at 
the  close  of  each  term  and  year,  such 
reviews  as  will  insure  thoroughness  in 
all  departments  of  the  school. 

Review,  review,  review,  if  you  would 
prepare  your  classes  for  examination 
and  for  business  life ;  not  for  two  or 
three  weeks  near  the  close  of  the  term, 
but  from  its  beginning  and  during  its 
continuance.  Review  until  all  have 
mastered  the  whole  subject. 

The  most  important  suggestion,  after 
all,  is  reserved  for  the  last,  viz.,  that  the 
instruction  in  every  department  of  the 
school  should  be  made  practical. 

Discipline,  the  grand  object  of  all 
study,  recitation,  and  instruction,  is 
always  available.  The  physical  vigor 
acquired  by  the  practice  of  gymnastics 
serves  its  possessor  in  whatever  sphere 
of  life  his  strength  is  needed. 


138  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Mental  ability,  the  result  of  long  and 
patient  study,  is,  at  all  times  and  every- 
where, useful.  And  that  moral  power 
gained  by  the  proper  exercise  of  the 
moral  faculties  gives  character  and  influ- 
ence to  all  who  possess  it. 

So  the  professional  knowledge  gained 
in  the  process  of  education  should  be 
made  practical.  What  avail  the  study 
of  medicine,  for  example,  if  the  physi- 
cian is  not  able  to  detect  and  cure  dis- 
ease ?  or  the  study  of  surgery,  if  he  can- 
not skilfully  amputate  a  limb  or  bind  up 
a  wound  ? 

The  scholar  who  has  graduated  from 
the  common  school  ought  to  be  able  to 
apply  his  knowledge  of  arithmetic  and 
grammar  in  the  common  business  of  life, 
and  to  become  intelligent  in  regard  to 
the  history  and  geography  of  the  world. 

But  this  is  not  the  result  of  common- 
school  education  in  this  country,  in  our 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.        139 

day.  Good  reading  is  the  exception, 
and  not  the  rule,  among  all  grades  of 
scholars.  And  why  do  professional  men 
so  seldom  acquire  this  art  ?  I  answer, 
because  of  the  wretched  habits  formed 
in  their  early  school-days.  These  habits 
become  so  fixed,  that  years  of  discipline 
fail  to  correct  them. 

And  why  does  not  the  study  of  spell- 
ing and  grammar  qualify  our  children 
to  apply  these  simple  principles  in  the 
use  of  written  language?  Because  each 
department  is  learned  as  an  abstraction 
and  as  a  task,  and  is  only  partially 
learned  at  all. 

Oral  spelling  of  columns  of  unmean- 
ing words  as  found  in  the  spelling-book, 
the  study  of  capitals  and  punctuation  in 
fine  print,  and  daily  recitations  of  the 
formal  rules  of  grammar,  do  not  educate  ; 
such  instruction  fills  the  mind  with  trash, 
but  imparts  no  practical  knowledge. 


140  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Correct  instruction  in  these  different 
departments  would  qualify  the  scholar 
to  compose  and  write  correctly.  As  it 
is,  he  spends  his  school  life  in  studying 
grammar,  and  the  remainder  of  his  days 
in  speaking  and  writing  false  syntax ; 
is  sure  to  violate  every  rule  and  princi- 
ple which  he  has  learned. 

Correct  spelling  on  paper  alone  can 
make  good  spellers;  the  practice  of 
speaking  and  writing  correctly  is  neces- 
sary to  become  a  good  grammarian. 
Hence,  the  teacher  should  insist  upon 
accuracy  and  propriety  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage in  the  recitation  and  in  the  com- 
mon intercourse  of  the  school,  and  seek 
practical  results  in  the  study  of  every 
principle  and  rule  in  the  language. 

And  the  scholar  who  studies  arithme- 
tic ought  to  be  able,  when  he  leaves  it, 
to  solve  all  the  practical  examples  of  the 
farm,  the  work-shop  and  the  counting- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.        141 

room.  He  should  know  how  to  measure 
a  pile  of  wood,  and  estimate  its  value ;  to 
determine  the  length  of  a  brace,  by 
knowing  its  distance  from  the  joint  of 
the  post  and  beam,  in  the  frame  of  his 
building ;  and  to  make  up  a  bill  of  goods 
that  have  been  purchased  at  the  counter. 
He  should  be  able  to  draft  a  note,  and, 
at  sight,  to  cast  the  interest;  to  make 
an  indorsement,  and  write  a  receipt. 

Of  what  advantage  are  years  of  study 
upon  these  practical  branches,  if  no  prac- 
tical ability  is  gained  ?  What  is  the 
benefit  to  a  young  lady  to  be  able  to 
read  French  and  play  the  piano,  while 
she  cannot  estimate  the  cost  of  a  calico 
dress,  with  the  necessary  trimmings  ? 

And  one  grand  object  of  the  school 
is  to  make  citizens,  and  to  qualify  them 
for  the  responsible  duties  of  citizenship 
in  a  free  government.  And  shall  they 
grow  up  to  manhood  without  culture 


142  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

and  intelligence,  find  uninstructed  as  to 
the  nature  of  our  government  and  the 
manner  m  which  it  is  administered  ? 

And  yet  how  many  of  the  graduates 
from  our  district  schools  understand 
what  constitutes  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States,  or  the  Legislature  of  a 
single  State  ?  Who  among  them  can 
tell  the  difference  between  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives,  or  how 
these  bodies  are  elected,  how  long  they 
hold  their  office,  or  what  are  the  specific 
duties  of  each  ?  Who  knows  the  exact 
difference  between  the  Legislative,  Judi- 
cial, and  Executive  Departments  of  our 
Government,  and  what  constitutes  each  ? 

Indeed,  it  is  not  improper  to  inquire 
how  many  of  our  teachers  could  bear  a 
rigid  examination  upon  these  topics  ? 
It  is  admitted  that  governmental  in- 
struction has  not  had  sufficient  atten- 
tion, even  in  our  higher  institutions; 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      143 

and  that  suitable  text-books  have  not 
been  accessible  for  our  common  schools. 
But  the  evil  should  at  once  be  reme- 
died. 

The  public  school  should  be  the  place 
to  prepare  thoroughly  for  the  practical 
business  of  active  life ;  and  it  fails  to 
accomplish  its  work,  so  far  as  it  fails  to 
secure  this  result. 

I  can  in  no  way  illustrate  and  enforce 
the  suggestions  made  above  upon  prac- 
tical teaching,  so  well  as  to  refer  my 
readers  to  the  German  primary  school, 
which,  it  must  be  conceded,  is  the 
model  school  of  the  world.  The  sub- 
jects taught  in  this  school  are  religion, 
reading,  writing,  counting,  mental  arith- 
metic, writing  to  dictation,  singing, 
grammar,  repeating  prose  and  poetry 
by  heart,  drawing,  natural  history,  bot- 
any and  geography ;  not  all  at  once, 
but  gradually  and  thoroughly.  The 


144  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

school  opens  at  seven  in  the  morning, 
and  closes  at  eleven.  One  hour  is  de- 
voted to  religious,  and  three  hours  to 
secular  teaching.;  and  then  the  school- 
day  is  over.  The  masters  are  always 
fresh  for  work,  and  the  children  active, 
but  not  fatigued.  There  is  no  sham 
teaching,  or  dawdling  over  forms,  in  this 
school. 

Elementary  teaching  in  Germany  is 
made  eminently  practical,  by  applying 
the  principles  of  each  department  stud- 
ied to  the  business  transactions  of  ordi- 
nary life.  The  teacher  imagines,  for 
instance,  the  purchase  of  some  apples, 
and  requires  the  children  to  calculate 
what  will  be  the  price  of  a  certain 
quantity,  and  how  much  change  they 
would  get  back  for  a  dollar  or  half  a 
dollar  paid  for  them.  The  whole  class 
are  called  into  consultation,  and  much 
fun  awakened  by  the  incidents  of  the 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      145 

bargain.  Writing  is  taught  so  as  to  in- 
clude composition.  No  German  boy  or 
girl  leaves  the  primary  school  who  is 
not  able  to  compose  and  write  a  re- 
spectable letter.  But  every  reader  will 
be  interested  to  know  just  how  this 
German  school  is  conducted,  to  secure 
such  practical  results.  I  can  in  no  way 
so  well  give  this  information,  as  by 
quoting  the  description  of  an  eye-wit- 
ness who  attended  an  hour's  examina- 
tion in  one  of  these  German  primary 
schools. 

"  The  class  being  ranged,  with  slates 
and  pencils  in  their  hands,  the  master 
propounds  the  subject.  'Let  me  see/ 
he  will  say, '  to-day  is  market-day.  You 
live,  we  will  say,  not  here,  but  in  the  lit- 
tle house  just  beyond  the  village,  three 
miles  away.  Mother  sends  you  to  mar- 
ket with  something  to  sell,  and  for 
something  to  buy;  but  you  are  not  to 
10 


146  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

go  home  to-night,  and  so  you  want  to 
write  a  letter  telling  her  what  you  have 
done.  Now  then,  begin.  What  shall  we 
write  down  first  ?  '  — '  I  have  sold  three 
hens  for '  shouts  a  little,  fat,  white- 
haired  fellow,  who  plainly  is  used  to  sell- 
ing his  mother's  farm  produce.  ( Stop  ! ' 
says  the  master:  'you  are  too  fast. 
That's  not  the  way  to  begin  :  we  will 
come  to  that  after.'  Here  several  rise, 
and  ask  to  be  heard.  A  little  girl,  with 
golden  hair  plaited  down  the  back, 
shouts  out,  '  My  dear  mother ! '  — '  No,' 
says  the  Herr :  '  that's  good ;  it  will 
come  later.'  Another  :  l  To-day  is  Fri- 
day ! ' — '  That's  right ;  but  there  is  more 
to  add.'  At  last  it  is  settled  that  the 
name  of  the  place,  and  the  day  of  the 
month,  and  perhaps  the  hour  of  the 
day,  if  need  be,  shall  all  be  set  down 
first,  and  at  the  right  hand  of  the  letter, 
before  any  thing  else  be  done.  Having" 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      147 

settled  now  what  is  first  to  be  done,  next 
comes  the  question  how  to  do  it,  and 
the  competition  who  shall  do  it  best. 
The  end  of  the  room  has  huge  black- 
boards, sponges,  and  chalk,  and  towels, 
with  little  long  rows  of  steps  for  the 
little  ones  to  climb  up.  The  letter  has 
first  to  be  written  out  (in  draft)  on  the 
blackboard,  and  corrected  and  settled 
finally  before  it  is  allowed  to  be  written 
with  ink  on  paper.  Now,  then,  a  child 
is  called  to  write  out  (one  on  each 
board),  at  the  right-hand  corner,  the 
name  of,  say  Rottenburg;  the  day, 
Friday ;  the  date,  Sept.  20,  1871.  The 
arrangement  of  this  gives  rise  to  a  vari- 
ety of  opinion  and  discussion:  Shall 
'  Rottenburg '  go  down  as  two  words  or 
one  ?  Shall '  burg '  have  a  capital  letter 
to  commence  with  ?  Shall  a  stroke  part 
the  words  ?  or  shall  the  whole  be  written 
together  ?  Shall '  Friday '  go  below  or  on 


148  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

the  line  ?  Shall  we  write  20  Sept.,  or  20 
September,  or  September  20  ?  Shall  we 
put  1871  below  or  on  the  line  ?  Shall 
we  begin  near  the  top  of  the  board,  or 
lower,  or  more  right  or  left  ?  write  on 
three  lines,  two  lines,  or  one  line  ?  At 
last  the  test  is  settled ;  and  the  master 
asks  the  cleverest  girl  to  write  out  the 
pattern  agreed,  dating  at  the  right-hand 
corner,  with  the  proper  margin  all 
round ;  and  this  is  now  copied  over  by 
each  on  the  slate  as  the  right  heading. 
6  My  dear  mother '  is  rightly  placed  at 
last  the  same  way ;  and,  preliminaries 
adjusted,  the  real  business  of  the  day 
begins  in  earnest.  '  My  dear  mother, 
— I  did  not  get  in  to  Eottenburg  before 
the  hand  of  the  clock  on  the  lower 
church  told  three-quarters  of  eight,' 
and  so  forth.  The  letter  being  finished, 
revision  and  criticism  begin.  Each  pu- 
pil changes  slates  with  his  or  her  neigh- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      149 

bor,  who  has  to  pick  flaws,  and  find  fault. 
The  corrected  slates  are  all  shown  to  the 
master,  who  gives  the  finishing  touch. 
At  last  they  all  sit  down  to  the  desk,  take 
pen  and  ink,  mend  their  pens,  rule  their 
paper,  and  write  out  the  letter  fairly  on 
the  pages  of  their  little  book,  which  is  to 
form  a  standard  reference  for  any  letters 
of  the  sort  they  may  want  to  write  in 
their  future  life. 

In  all  this  proceeding,  there  is  nothing 
very  new  perhaps,  but  it  is  so  admira- 
bly done  that  the  spectator  cannot  help 
taking  an  interest  in  the  process.  Every 
item  entered  is  made  a  matter  of  discus- 
sion. The  prices  of  fowls.  How  much 
a  fat  fowl  should  weigh.  How  much  a 
lean  one.  A  reasonable  price.  What 
food  fattens  fowls  best.  What  sort  of 
fowls  they  are,  and  how  old.  The  price 
of  cabbage,  of  carrots,  of  apples  :  their 
sorts,  the  quantity  produced  —  every 


150  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

thing  to  bring  the  school  home  to  the 
life  wants,  interest,  and  duties,  is  done, 
the  scholars  themselves  contributing 
each  his  mite  to  the  store  of  informa- 
tion the  letter  contains.  The  expenses, 
too,  of  the  day,  the  bargains,  and  the 
shops,  are  all  discussed.  After  one  such 
display  as  this,  I  went  home,  looking  at 
the  baskets  in  the  market,  at  the  don- 
key-carts lading  for  return  home,  at  the 
buyers  and  sellers,  and  at  the  goods  in 
the  little  shop-windows  with  more  inter- 
est than  ever  I  had  in  such  things  be- 
fore. I  felt  that  in  this  German  school 
the  children  were  training  for  the  real 
duties  of  their  lives." 

12. — WE  COME,  FINALLY,  TO   THE  DISCIPLINE  OF 
GOOD  MANNERS. 

The  school  of  good  manners,  which 
our  forefathers  seem  to  have  regarded  of 
great  importance,  has  been  discontinued. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       151 

The  subject  receives  little  or  no  attention 
in  the  public  schools  of  the  present  day, 
is  not  discussed  in  modern  works  on  Edu- 
cation, and  is  generally  treated  as  if  it 
were  of  little  or  no  consequence. 

As  a  result,  our  children  in  the  family 
and  school  practise  only  rudeness  and 
insubordination. 

To  such  an  extent  has  this  department 
of  education  been  neglected  of  late,  in 
our  country,  that  we  have  received  and 
merited  reproach  from  other  nations. 

I  may  here  draw  the  contrast  between"^ 
the  old  and  the  new  civilization,  touching 
the  habits  of  social  life.  The  old  was 
distinguished  by  a  proper  regard  to  all 
the  courtesies  of  refined-  life  :  the  new 
can  boast  of  nothing  but  incivility.  The 
rapid  decline  of  good  manners  in  our 
times  appears  most  evident  when  we 
compare  the  practice  of  our  fathers  with 
their  degenerate  grandchildren.  In  no 


152  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

way  can  this  be  so  well  done  as  by  free 
extracts  from  an  ancient  little  book  on 
good  manners,  which  has  accidentally 
fallen  into  my  hands.  The  book  is  so 
worn  that  the  name  of  its  author  and 
date  are  entirely  lost  to  us. 

Its  orthography  and  style  indicate  its 
antiquity,  and  lead  us  to  infer  that  its 
second  centennial  may  have  been  cele- 
brated. Its  size  is  about  four  inches  by 
two  and  a  half.  It  has  no  cover,  though 
it  may  have  had  one  in  its  younger  days. 
Its  title,  —  "  The  School  of  Good  Man- 
ners." It  contains  five  chapters,  cov- 
ering about  sixty  pages.  "  Chap.  I., 
containing  twenty  Miscellaneous  Pre- 
cepts." "  Chap.  II.,  containing  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty-three  Rules  for  Children's 
Behavior."  "  Chap.  III.,  containing 
Good  Advice  to  Children."  "  Chap.  IV., 
containing  eight  Wholesome  Cautions." 
''  Chap.  V.,  containing  a  Short,  Plain, 
and  Scriptural  Catechism. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       153 

The  precepts,  cautions,  and  rules  of 
this  little  book  are  all  addressed  to  chil- 
dren, as  the  youth  in  the  family  and 
school  were  called  in  those  days.  We 
have  no  children  now.  Boyhood  and 
girlhood  have  been  dropped  from  the 
natural  stages  of  human  life  ;  and  all  who 
are  not  infants  regard  themselves  as 
young  men  and  women,  and  claim  the 
deference  and  dignity  which  belong  only 
to  their  superiors.  But  I  regard  the 
finding  of  this  little  book  almost  as  the 
recovery  of  one  of  the  Lost  Arts.  Let 
it  here  speak  for  those  revered  men  and 
women  who  inculcated  by  precept  and 
example  the  good  manners  of  other  days. 
The  quotations  will  be  made  from  Chap. 
II.  And  first  let  it  speak  of  children's 
behavior  at  home. 

"1.  Make  a  bow  always  when  you 
come  home,  and  be  instantly  uncovered. 
2.  Be  never  covered  at  home,  especially 


154  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

before  thy  parents  or  strangers.  3.  If 
thou  passest  by  thy  parents  at  any  place 
where  thou  seest  them,  either  by  them- 
selves or  with  company,  bow  toward 
them.  4.  If  thou  art  going  to  speak  to 
thy  parents,  and  see  them  engaged  in 
discourse  with  company,  draw  back,  and 
leave  thy  business  until  afterwards  ;  but, 
if  thou  must  speak,  be  sure  to  whisper. 

5.  Never  speak  to  thy  parents  without 
some  title  of  respect,  as  sir,  madam,  &c. 

6.  Dispute  not  nor  delay  to  obey    thy 
parents'  commands.     7.  Go  not  out  of 
doors  without  thy  parents'  leave,  and  re- 
turn within  the  time  by  them  limited. 
8.  Come  not  into  the  room  where  thy 
parents  are  with  strangers,  unless  thou 
art  called,  and  then  decently;    and,  at 
bidding,  go    out;  or  if   strangers  come 
while  thou  art  with  them,  it  is  manners 
with  a   bow    to  withdraw.     9.  Use   re- 
spectful and  courteous,  but  not  insulting 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      155 

or  domineering  carriage  or  language 
towards  the  servants.  10.  Quarrel  not 
nor  contend  with  thy  brethren  or  sisters, 
but  live  in  love,  peace,  and  unity.  11. 
Grumble  not,  nor  be  discontented,  at 
any  thing  thy  parents  appoint,  speak,  or 
do.  12.  Bear  with  meekness  and  pa- 
tience, and  without  murmuring  or  sullen- 
ness,  thy  parents'  reproofs  or  corrections  ; 
nay,  though  it  should  happen  that  they 
be  causeless  or  undeserved." 

Here  we  see  that  the  old  civilization 
recognized  the  bow,  as  a  token  of  cour- 
tesy and  respect.  It  has  ever  been  so 
regarded,  though  sometimes  used  as  a 
sign  of  recognition.  In  the  rural  districts 
the  bow  and  courtesy  have  been  regarded 
as  evidence  of  good-breeding,  and  as  the 
expression  of  proper  reverence  cherished 
by  the  young  for  their  superiors. 

Alas !  that  both  the  sign  and  thing  sig- 
nified have  nearly  passed  away.  These 


156  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

expressions  of  genuine  politeness  and 
deference,  which  were  met  in  every  cul- 
tivated family  in  the  days  of  the  distin- 
guished Dr.  Edwards,  have  given  place  to 
coarseness  and  incivility.  And  the  "sir" 
and  "  madam  "  which  were  always  used 
by  the  children,  in  the  genteel  family,  as 
a  title  of  respect  and  reverence  for  par- 
ents, have  with  the  bow  and  courtesy 
passed  away. 

And  where  now  do  we  find  that  quiet- 
ness, politeness,  and  ready  obedience 
which  characterized  those  children  in 
their  relations  to  the  guardians  whom 
God  had  placed  over  them,  in  their  own 
homes  ?  In  those  days,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  parental  gentleness  and  authority, 
children  kept  their  places,  regarded  their 
instructions,  and  observed  all  the  little 
acts  of  civility  which  throw  a  charm 
around  the  family  circle. 

Not  so  now.     Rudeness  characterizes 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       157 

all  their  movements.  With  their  heads 
covered  they  lounge  about  their  home, 
intrude  themselves  into  company,  inter- 
rupt conversation,  dispute  with  superiors, 
and  make  themselves  disagreeable  every 
way.  And,  to  cap  the  climax  of  impu- 
dence, these  children  command,  and  their 
parents  obey.  This  is  the  inverted  order 
of  things,  the  new  civilization,  —  Young 
America  at  home. 

And  the  old  civilization  was  distin- 
guished by  special  regard  to  the  chil- 
dren's behavior  at  the  table.  Allow  me 
to  give,  on  this  point,  copious  extracts 
from  the  little  book. 

"  1.  Come  not  to  the  table  without 
having  your  hands  and  face  washed,  and 
your  head  combed.  2.  Sit  not  down 
till  thou  art  bidden  by  thy  parents  or 
other  superiors.  3.  Be  sure  thou  never 
sittest  down  till  a  blessing  be  desired, 
and  then  in  the  due  place.  4.  Offer  not 


158  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

to  carve  for  thyself,  or  to  take  any 
thing,  though  it  may  be  that  which  thou 

J  dost  greatly  desire.  5.  Ask  not  for  any 
thing,  but  tarry  till  it  be  offered  thee. 
6.  Find  no  fault  with  any  thing  that  is 
given  thee.  7.  When  thou  hast  meat 
given  thee,  be  not  the  first  that 
begins  to  eat.  8.  Speak  not  at  the 
table  :  if  thy  superiors  be  discoursing, 
meddle  not  with  the  matter ;  but  be  si- 
lent, except  thou  art  spoken  to.  9.  If 
thou  wantest  any  thing  of  the  servants, 
call  to  them  softly.  10.  Eat  not  too 
fast,  or  with  greedy  behavior.  11.  Eat 
not  too  much,  but  moderately.  12.  Eat 
not  so  slow  as  to  make  others  wait  for 
thee.  13.  Make  not  a  noise  with  thy 
tongue,  mouth,  lips,  or  breath,  in  eating 

^  or  drinking.  14.  Stare  not  in  the  face 
of  any  one  (especially  thy  superiors)  at 
the  table.  15.  Grease  not  thy  fingers 
or  napkin  more  than  necessity  requires. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       159 

16.  Bite  not  thy  bread,  but  break  it,  but 
not  with  slovenly  fingers,  nor  with  the 
same  wherewith  thou  takest  up  thy 
meat.  17.  Dip  not  thy  meat  in  the 
sauce.  18.  Take  not  salt  with  a  greasy 
knife.  19.  Spit  not,  cough  not,  nor  blow 
thy  nose  at  the  table,  if  it  may  be 
avoided ;  but,  if  there  be  necessity,  do  it 
aside  and  without  much  noise.  20.  Lean 
not  thy  elbow  on  the  table,  or  on  the 
back  of  thy  chair.  21.  Stuff  not  thy 
mouth  so  as  to  fill  the  cheeks ;  be  con- 
tent with  smaller  mouthfuls.  22.  Blow 
not  thy  meat,  but  with  patience  wait 
until  it  cool.  23.  Sup  not  broth  at  the 
table,  but  eat  it  with  a  spoon.  24. 
Smell  not  of  thy  meat,  nor  put  it  to  thy 
nose  ;  turn  it  not  the  other  side  upwards, 
to  view  it  upon  the  plate.  25.  Throw 
not  any  thing  under  thy  table.  26.  Hold 
not  thy  knife  upright  in  thy  hand,  but 
sloping,  and  lay  it  down  at  thy  right 


160  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

hand  with  the  blade  upon  thy  plate. 
27.  Spit  not  forth  any  thing  that  is  not 
convenient  to  be  swallowed,  as  the  stones 
of  plums,  cherries,  or  the  like,  but  with 
thy  left  hand  neatly  move  them  to  the 
side  of  thy  plate.  28.  Fix  not  thine 
eyes  upon  the  plate  of  another,  or  upon 
/  the  meat  on  the  table.  29.  Lift  not  up 
thine  eyes,  nor  roll  them  about,  while 
thou  art  drinking.  30.  Bend  not  thy 
body  downward  to  thy  plate,  when  thou 
movest  any  thing  that  is  sauced  to  thy 
mouth.  31.  Look  not  earnestly  on  any 
one  that  is  eating.  32.  Foul  not  the 
table-cloth.  33.  Foul  not  the  napkin  all 
over,  but  at  one  corner.  34.  Gnaw  not 
bones  at  the  table,  but  clean  them  with 
a  knife,  (unless  they  be  very  small 
ones),  and  hold  them  not  with  the  whole 
hand,  but  with  two  fingers.  35.  Drink 
not  nor  speak  with  any  thing  in  thy 
mouth.  36.  Put  not  a  bit  in  thy  mouth 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       161 

• 

till  the  rest  be  swallowed.  37.  Before 
and  after  thou  drinkest,  wipe  thy  lips 
with  a  napkin.  38.  Pick  not  thy  teeth 
at  the  table,  unless  holding  up  a  napkin 
before  thy  mouth  with  thine  other  hand. 

39.  Drink  not  till  thou  hast  quite  emp- 
tied   thy    mouth,  and    not  drink  often. 

40.  Frown  not  nor  murmur  if  there  be 
any  thing  at   the  table  which  thy  par- 
ents or  strangers  with  them  eat  of,  while 
thou    thyself    hast    none    given    thee. 

41.  As  soon  as  thou  shalt  be  moderately 
satisfied,    or    whensoever    thy    parents 
think  meet  to  bid  thee,  rise  up  from  the 
table,  though  others  thy  superiors  still 
sit.     42.    When    thou   risest    from    the 
table,  having  made  a  bow  at  the  side  of 
the  table  where  thou  didst  sit,  withdraw. 
43.  When  thanks  are  to  be  returned  after 
eating,    return  to  thy  place,  and  stand 
reverently  till  it  be  done  ;  then  with  a 
bow  withdraw  out  of  the  room,  leaving 


162  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

» 

thy  superiors  to  themselves,  unless  thou 
art  bidden  to  stay." 

These  quaint  precepts  of  our  vener- 
able ancestors  reveal  the  inner  life  of 
the  family  as  then  constituted ;  and  we 
cannot  fail  to  notice  the  special  care 
exercised  in  the  training  of  their  chil- 
dren to  correct  habits  of  deportment. 
We  may  admit  that  some  of  these  rules 
are  not  applicable  to  modern  ideas  of 
etiquette ;  and  yet  no  one  can  deny  that 
they  reveal  all  the  principles  of  good- 
breeding  touching  family  life,  and  re- 
buke the  degeneracy  of  our  times. 

Let  us  now  trace  this  comparison  a 
step  farther,  and  mark  the  children's 
behavior  when  at  school.  Here  I  will 
quote  again  from  our  ancient  "  School 
of  Good  Manners." 

"  1.  Bow  at  coming  in,  pulling  off 
thy  hat,  especially  if  thy  master  be  in 
school.  2.  Loiter  not,  but  immediately 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       163 

take  thine  own  seat,  and  move  not  from 
one  place  to  another,  till  school-time  is 
over.  3.  If  any  stranger  come  into  the 
school,  rise  up  and  bow,  and  sit  down 
in  thy  place  again,  keeping  a  profound 
silence.  4.  If  thy  master  be  discours- 
ing in  the  school  with  a  stranger,  stare 
not  confidently  on  them  nor  hearken  to 
their  talk.  5.  Interrupt  not  thy  master 
while  a  stranger  or  visitant  is  with  him, 
with  any  question,  request,  or  complaint, 
but  defer  any  such  matter  until  he  be 
at  leisure.  6.  At  no  time  quarrel  or 
talk  in  the  school,  but  be  quiet,  peace- 
able, and  silent.  Much  less  mayest  thou 
deceive  thyself,  in  trifling  away  thy 
precious  tune  in  play.  7.  If  thy  master 
speak  to  thee,  rise  up  and  bow,  making 
thine  answer  standing.  8.  Bawl  not 
aloud  in  making  thy  complaints.  A 
boy's  tongue  should  never  be  heard  in 
the  school  but  in  answering  a  question, 


164  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

or  saying  his  lesson.  9.  If  a  stranger 
speak  to  thee  in  school,  stand  up  and 
answer  with  respect  and  ceremony,  both 
of  word  and  gesture,  as  if  thou  speak- 
est  to  thy  master.  10.  Make  not  haste 
out  of  school,  but  soberly  go  when  thy 
turn  comes,  without  noise  or  hurry. 
11.  Go  not  rudely  home  through  the 
streets ;  stand  not  talking  with  boys  to 
delay  thee,  but  go  quietly  home,  and 
with  all  convenient  haste.  12.  When  it 
is  tune  to  return  to  school  -again,  be 
sure  to  be  there  in  season,  and  not 
loiter  at  home  whilst  thy  master  is  at 
school.  13.  Divulge  not  to  any  person 
whatever,  elsewhere,  any  thing  that 
hath  passed  in  the  school,  either  spoken 
or  done." 

We  may  observe  that  a  similar  code 
of  laws  is  here  given  for  the  regulation 
of  school  manners,  as  for  the  family. 
And  we  know  that  this  was  the  practice 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      165 

in  the  homes  of  our  Puritan  fathers. 
Under  parental  discipline  the  children 
learned  the  art  of  good  behavior,  and 
they  carried  these  habits  into  the  school 
and  into  life.  Home  is,  indeed,  the 
place  where  the  sentiments  of  true 
courtesy  should  take  root,  be  cultivated, 
and  grow.  It  would  then  naturally  be 
transferred  to  the  school ;  would  gain  a 
controlling  influence  over  the  young, 
would  grow  with  their  growth  and 
strengthen  with  their  strength,  regulat- 
ing their  behavior  in  all  their  inter- 
course with  the  world. 

But,  as  already  intimated,  children 
are  not  instructed  in  the  art  of  good 
behavior,  as  formerly,  in  the  family  or 
the  school.  In  a  majority  of  cases,  the 
subject  receives  absolutely  no  attention, 
from  year  to  year.  How  can  it  be  ex- 
pected, therefore,  that  our  children  or 
our  pupils  will  practise  good  manners  ? 


166  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

They  have  never  been  instructed,  and 
how  can  they  understand  their  impor- 
tance ? 

How  wide  the  contrast,  in  these  rela- 
tions, between  the  old  and  the  new  civ- 
ilization. Do  our  pupils,  now,  any- 
where, enter  the  school  with  the  bow 
and  courtesy,  in  the  presence  of  their 
master  and  strangers  ?  Do  they  rise 
and  bow  when  spoken  to,  "  making  their 
answer  standing  ?  "  Are  they,  as  a  rule, 
quiet,  orderly,  and  respectful  during  all 
the  school  hours  ?  Do  they  "  go  out  of 
school  soberly  when  their  turn  comes, 
without  noise  or  hurry "  ?  or  do  the 
bound  and  scream  which  follow  the 
word  of  dismissal  remind  you  of  incipi- 
ent savages  ?  What  is  the  experience 
of  the  teachers  of  our  public  schools  on 
this  point  ? 

And  when  you  pass  through  the 
streets,  may  you  always  expect  respect- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       167 

fill  attention  and  courteous  behavior 
from  your  school-boys  that  chance  to 
pass  that  way  ?  In  exceptional  cases, 
no  doubt,  you  do  meet  civility ;  but  you 
are  fortunate  if  you  escape  insulting 
words,  and  even  snow-balls  or  mud- 
balls  from  these  young  Americans. 

And  how  else  is  the  village  gossip, 
the  busybody  with  the  affairs  of  others, 
and  the  slanderer,  trained  in  their  arts, 
if  not  by  "  telling  tales  out  of  school," 
in  violation  of  the  last  rule  given  above, 
on  school  manners  ?  "  Divulge  not  any 
thing  that  hath  passed  in  the  school, 
either  spoken  or  done." 

"The  discipline  of  the  family  is  inti- 
mately connected  with  that  of  the  school, 
and  each  has  reference  to  social  life.  The 
instructions  given  to  the  children,  there- 
fore, will  cover  their  behavior  in  com- 
pany, in  their  discourse,  when  abroad, 
and  among  other  children.  On  these 


168  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

points  our  genteel  author  discourses  as 
follows.  Let  these  quotations  follow  in 
their  order. 

"  1.  Enter  not  into  the  company  of 
superiors  without  command  or  calling, 
nor  without  a  bow.  2.  Sing  not,  nor 
hum  in  thy  mouth,  while  thou  art  in 
company.  3.  Stand  not  wriggling  with 
thy  body  hither  and  thither,  but  steady 
and  upright.  4.  Play  not  wantonly  like 
a  mimic  with  thy  fingers  or  feet.  5. 
In  coughing  or  sneezing,  make  as  little 
noise  as  possible.  6.  If  thou  canst  not 
avoid  yawning,  shut  thy  mouth  with 
thine  hand  or  handkerchief  before  it, 
turning  thy  face  aside.  7.  When  thou 
blowest  thy  nose,  let  thy  handkerchief 
be  used,  and  make  not  a  noise  in  so 
doing.  8.  Gnaw  not  thy  nails,  pick 
them  not,  nor  bite  them  with  thy  teeth. 
9.  Spit  not  in  the  room,  but  in  the  fire- 
place, or  rather  go  out  and  do  it  abroad. 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       169 

10.  Lean  not  on  the  chair  of  a  superior, 
standing  behind  him.  11.  Spit  not  upon 
the  fire,  nor  sit  too  wide  with  thy  knees 
at  it.  12.  Turn  not  thy  back  to  any, 
but  place  thyself  so  that  none  may 
be  behind  thee.  13.  Read  not  letters, 
books,  or  other  writings  in  company, 
unless  there  be  necessity,  and  thou 
askest  leave.  14.  Touch  not  nor  look 
upon  the  books  or  writings  of  any  one, 
unless  the  owner  invite  or  desire  thee. 
15.  Come  not  near  when  another  reads 
a  letter  or  any  other  paper.  16.  Let 
thy  countenance  bs  moderately  cheer- 
ful, neither  laughing  nor  frowning.  17. 
Laugh  not,  but  silently  smile,  upon  any 
occasion.  18.  Stand  not  before  thy 
superiors  with  thine  hands  in  thy  pock- 
etsj  scratch  not  thy  head,  wink  not 
with  thine  eye,  but  modestly  look 
straight  before  thee.  19.  Walking  with 
thy  superior  in  the  house  or  garden, 


170  TEACHER  'S  MANUAL. 

give  him  the  right  (or  upper  hand),  and 
walk  not  too  near,  but  a  little  behind 
him ;  yet  not  so  distant  as  that  it  shall 
be  troublesome  to  him  to  speak  to  thee, 
or  hard  for  thee  to  hear.  20.  Look  not 
boldly  or  wishfully  in  the  face  of  thy 
superior.  21.  To  look  upon  one  in 
company,  and  immediately  whisper  to 
another,  is  unmannerly.  22.  Whisper 
not  in  company.  23.  Be  not  forward 
and  fretful  among  equals,  but  gentle 
and  affable.  24.  Among  superiors,  speak 
not  till  thou  art  spoken  to,  and  bid  to 
speak.  25.  Hold  not  thine  hand  nor 
any  thing  else  before  thy  mouth  when 
thou  speakest.  26.  Come  not  very  near 
the  person  thou  speakest  to.  27.  If  thy 
superior  speaks  to  thee  while  thou  sittest, 
stand  up  before  thou  givest  an  answer. 
28.  Sit  not  down  till  thy  superior  bid 
thee.  29.  Speak  neither  very  loud  nor 
too  low.  30.  Speak  clear,  not  stammer- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       171 

ing,  stumbling,  nor  drawling.  31.  Answer 
not  one  that  is  speaking  to  thee  until 
he  hath  done.  32.  Loll  not  when  thou 
art  speaking  to  a  superior,  or  spoken 
to  by  him.  33.  Speak  not  without 
Sir,  or  some  other  title  of  respect, 
which  is  due  to  him  to  whom  thou 
speakest.  34.  Strive  not  with  superiors 
in  arguments  or  discourse,  but  easily 
submit  thine  opinion  to  their  assertions. 

35.  If  thy  superior  speaketh  any  thing 
wherein  thou  knowest  he  is  mistaken, 
correct  not  nor  contradict  him,  nor  grin 
at  the  hearing  of  it,  but  pass  over  the 
error    without    notice    or   interruption. 

36.  Mention  not  frivolous  or  little  things 
among  grave  persons  or  superiors.     37- 
If  thy  superior  drawl  or  hesitate  in  his 
words,  pretend  not  to  help  him  out  or 
prompt  him.     38.  Come  not  very  near 
two  that  are  whispering  or  speaking  in 
secret,  neither  ask  about  what  they  con- 


172  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

verse  upon.  39.  When  thy  parent  or 
master  speaks  to  any  person,  speak  not 
thou  nor  hearken  to  them.  40.  If  thy 
superior  be  relating  a  story,  say  not,  I 
have  heard  it  before,  but  attend  to  it  as 
if  it  were  altogether  new  to  thee.  Seem 
not  to  question  the  truth  of  it.  If  he 
tell  not  right,  snigger  not,  nor  endeavor 
to  help  him  out,  or  add  to  his  relation. 
41.  If  any  immodest  or  obscene  thing 
be  spoken  in  thy  hearing,  smile  not,  but 
settle  thy  countenance  as  though  thou 
didst  not  hear  it.  42.  Boast  not  in  dis- 
course of  thine  own  wit  or  doing.  43. 
Beware  thou  utter  not  any  thing  hard  to 
be  believed.  44.  Interrupt  not  any  one 
that  speaks,  though  he  be  thine  intimate. 
45.  Coming  into  company  whilst  any 
topic  is  discoursed  on,  ask  not  what  was 
the  preceding  talk,  but  hearken  to  the 
remainder.  46.  Speaking  of  any  distant 
person,  it  is  rude  and  unmannerly  to 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.        173 

point  at  him.  47.  Laugh  not  in  or  at 
thy  own  story,  wit,  or  jest.  48.  Use 
not  any  contemptuous  or  reproachful 
language  to  any  person,  though  very 
mean  or  inferior.  49.  Be  not  over 
earnest  in  talking  to  justify  thine  own 
sayings.  50.  Let  thy  words  be  modest 
about  those  things  which  only  concern 
thyself.  51.  Repeat  not  the  words  of  a 
superior  that  asketh  thee  a  question,  or 
talketh  with  thee.  52.  Go  not  singing, 
whistling,  or  hallooing  along  the  street. 
53.  Quarrel  not  with  anybody  thou 
meetest  or  dost  overtake.  54.  Affront 
none,  especially  thy  elders,  by  word  or 
deed.  55.  Jeer  not  at  any  person  what- 
ever. 56.  Always  give  the  right  hand 
to  your  superiors  when  you  either  meet 
or  walk  with  them,  and  mind  also  to 
give  them  the  wall  in  meeting  or  walk- 
ing with  them;  for  that  is  the  upper 
hand,  though  in  walking  your  superior 


174  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

should  be  at  your  left  hand.  But  when 
three  persons  walk  together,  the  middle 
place  is  the  most  honorable,  and  a  son 
may  walk  at  his  father's  right  hand 
when  his  younger  brother  walks  at  his 
left.  57.  Give  thy  superiors  leave  to 
pass  before  thee  in  any  narrow  place 
where  two  persons  cannot  pass  at  once. 
58.  If  thou  go  with  thy  parents,  master, 
or  any  superior,  go  not  wantonly,  nor 
even  with  them,  but  a  little  behind 
them.  59.  Pay  thy  respects  to  all  thou 
meetest  of  thine  acquaintance  or  friends. 
60.  Pull  off  thy  hat  to  persons  of  desert, 
quality  or,  office.  Shew  thy  reverence 
to  them  by  bowing  thy  body  when  thou 
seest  them.  61.  If  a  superior  speak  to 
thee  in  the  street,  answer  him  with  thy 
head  uncovered.  62.  Run  not  hastily 
in  the  street,  nor  go  too  slowly  ;  wag  not 
to  and  fro,  nor  use  any  antic  or  wanton 
postures,  either  of  thy  head,  hands,  feet, 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  T11E  SCHOOL.       175 

or  body.  63.  Stare  not  at  every  un- 
usual person  or  thing  which  thou  seest. 
64.  Throw  not  any  thing  in  the  street,  as 
dirt  or  stones.  65.  Offend  not  the  mas- 
ter or  scholars  of  another  school.  66. 
As  near  as  may  be,  converse  not  with 
any  but  those  that  are  good,  sober,  and 
virtuous.  Eoil  communications  corrupt 
good  manners.  Be  not  quarrelsome,  but 
rather  patiently- take  than  mischievously 
occasion  any  wrong.  67.  Reprove  thy 
companions  as  often  as  there  shall  be 
occasion,  for  wicked  actions  or  indecent 
expressions.  68.  Give  place  always  to 
him  that  excelleth  thee  in  quality,  age, 
or  learning.  69.  Be  willing  to  take 
those  words  or  actions  as  jesting  which 
thou  hast  reason  to  believe  were  designed 
as  such ;  and  fret  not  at  thy  companion's 
innocent  mirth.  70.  If  thy  companion 
be  a  little  too  gross  or  sarcastical  in 
speaking,  strive  not  to  take  notice  of  it 


176  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

or  be  moved  at  all  by  it.     71.  Abuse 
not  thy  companion  either  by  word  or 
deed.     72.  Deal  justly  among  boys  thy 
equals,  as  solicitously  as  if  thou  wert  a 
man  with  men,  and  about   business  of 
higher  importance.     73.  Be  not   selfish 
altogether,  but  kind,  free,  and  generous 
to   others.      74.  Jog   not   the   table  or 
desk  on  which  another  writes.     75.  At 
play,  make  not   thy  clothes,  hands,  or 
face  dirty,  nor  sit  upon  the  ground.     76. 
Avoid  sinful  and   unlawful   recreations, 
and  all  such  as  prejudice  the  welfare  of 
body   or   mind.     77.  Scorn    not,   laugh 
not  at,  any  for  their  natural  infirmities 
of  body  or  mind  ;  nor,  because  of  them, 
affix  to  any  a  vexing  title  of  contempt, 
but  pity  such  as  are  so  visited,  and  be 
thankful  that  you  are  otherwise  distin- 
guished  and   favored.       78.  Adventure 
not  to  talk  with  thy  companion  about 
thy  superiors,  to  raise  discourse  reflect- 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL,       177 

ing  upon  or  touching  another's  parents 
or  masters;  nor  publish  any  thing  of 
thine  own  family  or  household  affairs. 
Children  must  meddle  only  with  the 
affairs  of  children." 

These  are  indeed  homely  and  very 
ancient  precepts  touching  the  habits  of 
social  life,  and  are  clothed  in  Quaker 
garb ;  yet  we  cannot  deny  that  they 
reveal  the  principles  of  true  politeness. 
And  what  are  its  elements  ?  Its  source 
cannot  be  doubtful.  It  must  spring 
from  benevolence  and  kindness  of  heart. 
Its  aim  is  to  make  others  happy,  and  to 
smooth  down  the  rough  edges  and  sharp 
points  of  human  society.  Some  are  nat- 
urally courteous ;  with  others  it  is  an 
acquired  habit,  and  is  put  on  as  easily 
as  an  elegant  garment.  But  still  others 
are  so  rude  in  their  manners,  that  it 
seems  almost  hopeless  to  engraft  upon 
them  the  grace  of  politeness.  Still  we 
12 


178  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

may  assume  that  this  germ  is  found  in 
every  human  soul,  and  that  culture  will 
bring  it  out. 

True  courtesy  everywhere  requires  us, 
First,  to  avoid  doing  any  thing  that  will 
offend  the  taste,  delicacy,  or  feelings  of 
those  with  whom  we  associate. 

Second,  it  requires  us  to  aim  to  con- 
tribute to  the  enjoyment  of  our  associ- 
ates ;  and, 

Third,  it  requires  us  to  give  up  our 
own  personal  gratification  for  the  com- 
fort of  others. 

These  principles  underlie  good-breed- 
ing everywhere,  and  are,  perhaps,  suffi- 
ciently comprehensive  for  the  guidance 
of  all  who  would  enter  upon  a  course  of 
self-culture  in  this  direction,  or  desire 
to  give  instruction  to  others.  The  very 
presence  of  a  true  gentleman  or  lady 
refines  and  elevates. 

Hon.  Edward  Everett,  late  of  Boston, 


TH-E  DISCIPLINE   OF   THE  SCHOOL.       179 

was  an  accomplished  gentleman.  He 
was  in  the  habit  of  visiting  the  public 
schools  of  that  city ;  and  on  one  occasion, 
after  he  had  retired,  a  young  pupil  who 
had  watched  him  with  admiration,  said 
to  his  teacher,  "  Miss  Brown,  I  always 
feel  just  as  if  1  must  keep  bowing  when 
that  gentleman  comes  into  school." 
This  illustration  suggests  the  great  im- 
portance of  politeness  as  an  example  in 
the  family  and  school.  Parents  and 
teachers  should  practise  all  the  little 
civilities  of  refined  life  in  their  inter- 
course with  their  children  and  pupils. 
They  would  thus  enforce  precept  by 
living  example  of  good  manners,  and  the 
happiest  results  would  be  realized. 

The  subject  of  manners  is  scarcely  in- 
ferior in  importance  to  that  of  morals. 
An  educator  who  felt  the  importance  of 
the  subject  draws  the  following  compar- 
ison between  these  two  departments  of 
culture  :  — 


180  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

"  Morals  form  the  basis  of  human 
character,  but  manners  are  its  decora- 
tions, and  aids  to  its  development. 
Morals  are  the  staple  of  human  laws, 
the  grand  regulators  of  human  govern- 
ment ;  manners  are  their  gildings,  which 
tend  to  soften  their  asperities,  and  win  a 
more  ready  acquiescence  in  their  observ- 
ance. Morals  are  the  solid  bullion  form- 
ing the  foundation  of  the  currency  of  a 
government ;  manners  the  small  notes 
and  coins,  ever  ready  to  use,  and  with- 
out which  the  business  intercourse  of 
mankind  would  cease,  or  retrograde  to 
the  condition  of  things  that  existed  in 
the  world's  infancy.  In  fine,  morals  are 
the  sun  behind  a  cloud,  which,  though 
giving  light  to  the  world,  lacks  the 
genial  force  of  its  shining  face ;  manners 
are  the  agencies  that  displace  the  cloud, 
and  reveal  the  glorious  orb  in  all  its 
original  power." 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.      181 

Indeed,  manners  are  the  twin-sister 
of  morals,  and  yet  morals  are  the  only 
preserver  of  human  society.  One  is 
the  complement  of  the  other,  and  they 
cannot  be  separated.  Like  the  Siamese 
twins,  their  vital  organs  are  connected ; 
their  life-blood  flows  from  the  same 
heart,  and  through  the  same  channels. 
Sever  the  artery  that  connects  them,  and 
you  destroy  the  life  of  both. 

Morals  divorced  from  manners  become 
cold  and  repulsive  ;  but  when  united 
they  are  attractive  and  pleasing. 

It  is  true  also  that  manners  without 
morals  soon  degenerate  into  hypocrisy, 
exhibiting  to  the  world  the  "  Whited 
Sepulchre,"  the  false-hearted  man  or 
woman. 

Edmund  Burke  said,  "  Manners  are 
of  more  importance  than  laws.  Upon 
them,  hi  a  great  measure,  the  laws 
depend.  The  law  can  touch  us  here 


182  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

and  there,  now  and  then.  Manners  are 
what  vex  or  soothe,  corrupt  or  purify, 
exalt  or  debase,  barbarize  or  refine,  by 
a  constant,  steady,  uniform,  insensible 
operation,  like  that  of  the  air  we  breathe 
in.  They  give  their  whole  form  and 
color  to  our  lives." 

And  how  are  we  to  gain  what  has 
been  lost  in  this  important  department 
of  education  ?  Lack  of  home  culture 
and  discipline  is  the  principal  cause  of 
the  evil  we  contemplate.  Children  left 
to  their  own  ways  usually  grow  up  in 
the  entire  disregard  of  common  cour- 
tesy. They  neglect  to  show  proper 
respect  to  parents  and  teachers,  to 
seniors  in  age,  to  superiors  in  wisdom 
and  virtue. 

And  if  the  ordinary  civilities  of  re- 
fined life  are  not  regarded  in  the  family 
and  school,  and  in  the  social  intercourse 
of  home-life,  how  can  we  expect  that 


THE  DISCIPLINE  OF  THE  SCHOOL.       163 

politeness  will  be  extended  to  the  stran- 
ger met  in  the  marts  of  business,  or  in 
the  walks  of  pleasure  ? 

In  the  present  condition  of  society, 
much  responsibility  in  regard  to  this 
needed  reform  rests  upon  the  teachers 
of  our  public  schools. 

Hence,  I  most  earnestly  commend 
this  subject  to  those  for  whom  especially 
this  book  is  written.  Let  every  teacher 
to  whom  is  intrusted  the  care  of  chil- 
dren and  youth,  and  every  candidate 
for  this  responsible  office,  aim  at  a  high 
degree  of  self-culture  in  the  school  of 
good  manners.  And  let  him  not  fail  to 
give  daily  and  faithful  instruction  on 
this  subject. 


II. 

THE  DIGNITY  OF  THE  TEACHEK'S  WORK. 

E  great  sculptor,  Hiram  Powers, 
executed  the  bust  of  the  distin- 
guished Edward  Everett,  which  is  said  to 
be  unsurpassed  by  any  work  of  art,  either 
in  ancient  or  modern  times.  Yet  how 
much  greater  and  more  distinguished 
the  artist  who  aided  in  forming  the 
mind  and  character  of  that  same  Everett, 
who  was  acknowledged  to  be  one  of  the 
greatest  American  orators.  When  but 
ten  years  old,  young  Everett  sat  before 
Daniel  Webster,  and  received  from  him, 
as  his  teacher,  the  rudiments  of  educa- 
tion. More  than  half .  a  century  after- 

184 


THE  DIGNITY  OF  HIS   WORK.  185 

wards,  when  both  teacher  and  pupil 
had  attained  the  most  distinguished 
honors  and  highest  position  among  their 
fellow-men,  the  one  having  passed  off 
the  stage  of  life,  leaving  the  other  with- 
out a  living  superior,  the  pupil  sat  for 
his  bust  before  the  artist  Powers. 

And  to  whom  shall  we  award  the 
praise  ?  To  the  artist  or  the  teacher  ? 
to  the  distinguished  Powers,  or  the  im- 
mortal Webster  and  his  co-laborers  in 
the  work  of  education  ?  We  may  ad- 
mire the  genius  and  skill  of  him  who 
has  taken  the  rude  block  of  marble,  cold 
from  the  quarry,  and  converted  it  into 
an  almost  breathing  statue.  Ages  will 
venerate  him,  time  will  pay  him  a  trib- 
ute of  respect,  poesy  will  proudly  rear 
a  tablet  to  his  memory,  and  history  will 
adorn  her  pages  with  his  eulogy. 

The  painter,  who  represents  on  can- 
vas the  beautiful  creation  of  his  own 


186  TE ACHE It'ti  MANUAL. 

imagination,  or  the  striking  events  of 
story,  rears  a  monument  to  his  own 
memory  that  will  long  endure,  and  con- 
tinue to  rise  in  loftier  majesty  and  more 
fit  proportions  from  generation  to  gen- 
eration. 

Still,  how  insignificant  the  profession 
of  the  artist  when  compared  with  that 
of  the  true  teacher.  The  one  works 
upon  stone  or  the  canvas,  the  other 
upon  the  undying  spirit ;  the  one 
creates  the  form  and  figure  of  the  life- 
less body,  the  other  moulds  the  living 
character  of  the  hero,  statesman,  and 
sage.  The  artist  attracts  attention  as  a 
man  of  genius,  and  his  works  are  ad- 
mired as  evidence  of  inimitable  skill; 
but  the  memory  of  the  faithful  teacher 
will  be  cherished  with  gratitude  when 
all  earthly  distinctions  shall  be  for- 
gotten, and  the  results  of  his  labors  will 
endure  forever. 


THE  DIGNITY  OF  HIS   WORK.  187 

His  material  is  no  rude  earthly  sub- 
stance, to  be  fashioned  by  the  chisel,  or 
made  to  glow  with  animation  by  the 
pencil.  It  is  his  to  mould  the  MIND, 
that  emanation  from  Deity,  which,  when 
developed,  constitutes  the  intellect,  the 
affections,  and  the  will ;  which  denies 
relationship  to  any  thing  earthly,  and 
claims  kindred  with  the  skies ;  and 
which,  when  all  material  forms  shall 
decay,  will  continue  to  live  and  to  glow 
in  the  brightness  of  progressive  immor- 
tality. What,  then,  is  the  sculptor's  or 
painter's  art  compared  with  his  ?  It  is 
the  teacher's  business  to  form  the  intel- 
lect, not  to  fashion  a  stone ;  to  guide 
the  affections,  not  the  pencil ;  to  stimu- 
late conscience  and  give  energy  to  will, 
not  merely  to  make  the  lifeless  eye 
speak  in  a  group  of  figures,  or  the 
graces  sit  enthroned  on  a  marble  brow. 
In  a  word,  it  is  his  to  educate  the  human 


188  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

soul,  and  fit  it  for  its  noble  designs  and 
destiny.  From  the  canvas  upon  which 
he  paints,  no  impression  can  be  erased ; 
good  or  evil,  truth  or  error,  virtue  or 
vice,  it  must  ever  remain.  How  honor- 
able, then,  the  teacher's  position  and 
work! 

The  warrior,  the  statesman,  and  the 
scholar  claim  also  a  share  of  the  world's 
homage.  And  may  we  erect  triumphal 
arches  to  our  own  Washington,  who  led 
our  armies  victorious  over  the  slaugh- 
tered hosts  of  their  enemies,  and  after- 
wards presided  in  our  public  councils  ? 
May  we  institute  a  great  national  festi- 
val, whose  annual  return  is  celebrated 
by  bells,  bonfires,  illuminations,  and  pub- 
lic rejoicings,  in  view  of  the  great  work 
which  our  hero  and  statesman  has  ac- 
complished ?  May  we  purchase  "  Mount 
Vernon,"  that  the  great  name  of  the 
"  Father  of  our  Country  "  may  be  for- 


THE  DIGNITY  OF  HIS   WORK.  189 

ever  associated  with  the  home  of  his 
manhood,  and  that  a  mighty  nation  may 
water  his  tomb  with  their  grateful  tears 
through  all  coming  time  ?  It  is  well  to 
do  so.  But  what  avail  the  victories  of 
our  Revolution  or  our  dear  bought  free- 
dom ?  What  avail  to  rear  monuments 
and  consecrate  public  grounds  to  per- 
petuate the  memory  of  our  great  na- 
tional struggle,  and  of  the  warriors  and 
statesmen  whom  we  delight  to  honor,  if 
the  school  be  not  established  and  the 
teacher  employed  to  prepare  the  people 
for  the  enjoyment  and  preservation  of 
our  liberties  ?  Self-government  is  not 
possible  without  intelligence  and  virtue. 
Hence,  great  statesmen  and  victorious 
armies  are  of  little  value  in  any  country 
without  efficient  teachers.  Indeed,  the 
teacher  has  ever  been  the  patron  of 
society.  To  him  has  been  committed 
the  work  of  training  the  mind  and  form- 


190  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

ing  the  character  of  each  generation  of 
American  citizens,  and  at  a  period  when 
the  most  susceptible  of  durable  impres- 
sions. And  our  future  citizens  and 
rulers  are  now  under  his  care  and  in- 
struction. Their  moral  and  intellectual 
character  must  be  moulded  chiefly  by 
his  hand.  To  our  Common  Schools  we 
must  look  for  those  who  will  soon  be 
called  upon  to  manage  the  affairs  of 
families,  to  transact  the  business  of  town 
and  State,  to  fill  the  vacated  bench  of 
justice,  to  sit  in  the  halls  of  legislation, 
and  to  direct  and  control  the  Church  of 
God. 

Upon  the  character  of  our  schools  and 
teachers.,  therefore,  depends  the  weal  or 
woe  of  unborn  millions,  the  prosperity 
or  downfall  of  our  boasted  institutions. 

And  if,  as  some  one  has  said,  "  to 
educate  a  child  perfectly,  requires  pro- 
founder  thought,  greater  wisdom,  than 


THE  DIGNITY  OF  HIS   WORK.  191 

to  conquer  an  empire  or  govern  a 
State,"  what  place  among  the  honored 
of  our  nation  and  the  benefactors  of  our 
race  shall  we  assign  to  the  efficient 
teacher?  May  the  profound  scholar, 
who  retires  from  the  strifes  and  conflicts 
of  life,  and  spends  his  strength  for  the 
public  weal,  win  from  us  his  meed  of 
praise  ?  And  shall  we  not  honor  him 
also  who  consecrates  himself  to  the 
great  work  of  cultivating  mind,  and 
training  American  citizens  for  their 
peculiar  duties  and  responsibilities  ? 

Dr.  Channing  once  said,  "  One  of  the 
surest  signs  of  the  regeneration  of 
society  will  be  the  elevation  of  the  art 
of  teaching  to  the  highest  rank  in  the 
community.  When  a  people  shall  learn 
that  its  greatest  benefactors  and  most 
important  members  are  men  devoted  to 
the  liberal  instruction  of  all  its  classes, 
to  the  work  of  raising  to  life  its  buried 


192  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

intellect,  it  will  have  opened  to  itself 
the  path  of  true  glory.  Socrates  is  now 
regarded  the  greatest  man  in  an  age  of 
great  men.  To  teach,  whether  by  word 
or  action,  is  the  greatest  function  on 
earth" 

There  is  another  view  of  our  subject 
which  magnifies  the  teacher's  position 
and  work  still  more.  Teaching  is  the 
source  of  our  most  valuable  attainments 
and  greatest  blessings.  Who  does  not 
owe  a  debt  of  gratitude  to  the  teacher  ? 
Look  on  the  favored  portions  of  our 
country,  and  ask  whence  the  general 
intelligence,  virtue,  order,  and  happiness 
that  characterize  the  people  ?  whence 
these  countless  privileges,  innumerable 
sources  of  enjoyment,  and  thousands  of 
smiling,  happy  homes  that  meet  our 
eye  ?  Do  they  not  all  emanate  from 
our  schools  ?  Are  they  not  the  result 
of  teaching  ? 


THE  DIGNITY  OF  HIS  WORK.  193 

We  are  accustomed  to  look  with  pride 
upon  the  noble  phalanx  of  educated 
men  and  women  who  have  done  so 
much  to  elevate  and  honor  our  country. 
Our  editors,  authors,  orators,  and  states- 
men have  an  imposing  character  and 
commanding  influence  ;  our  professional 
men  are  distinguished  for  learning,  skill 
and  ability,  and  many  of  them  have 
gained  a  world-wide  and  enduring  repu- 
tation. But  are  not  all  these  the  work- 
manship of  the  teacher  ?  The  compara- 
tive dignity  of  the  teacher's  work 
will  be  best  illustrated  by  the  following 
fable  :  — 

"When  Jupiter  offered  the  prize  of 
immortality  to  him  who  was  the  most 
useful  to  mankind,  the  court  of  Olympus 
was  crowded  with  competitors.  The 
warrior  boasted  of  his  patriotism,  but 
Jupiter  thundered ;  the  rich  man  boasted 
of  his  munificence,  and  Jupiter  showed 

13 


194  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

him  the  widow's  mite  ;  the  pontiff  held 
up  the  keys  of  heaven,  and  Jupiter 
pushed  the  doors  wide  open;  the  painter 
boasted  of  his  power  to  give  life  to  in- 
animate canvas,  and  Jupiter  breathed 
aloud  in  derision ;  the  sculptor  boasted 
of  making  gods  that  contended  with  the 
immortals  for  human  homage,  Jupiter 
frowned;  the  orator  boasted  of  his  power 
to  sway  the  nation  with  his  voice,  and 
Jupiter  marshalled  the  obedient  host  of 
heaven  with  a  word  ;  the  poet  spoke  of 
his  power  to  move  even  the  gods  by 
praise,  Jupiter  blushed ;  the  musician 
claimed  to  practise  the  only  human 
science  that  had  been  transplanted  to 
heaven,  Jupiter  hesitated ;  when  seeing 
a  venerable  man  looking  with  intense 
interest  upon  the  group  of  competitors, 
but  presenting  no  claims,  '  What  art 
thou  ?  '  said  the  benignant  monarch. 
'  Only  a  spectator/  replied  the  gray- 


THE  DIGNITY  OF  HIS    WORK.  195 

headed  sage :  '  all  these  were  my  pupils/ 
f Crown  him,  crown  him!'  said  Jupiter; 
1  crown  the  faithful  teacher  with  immor- 
tality, and  make  room  for  him  at  my 
right  hand ! '  " 


III. 

HIS  NECESSARY  QUALIFICATIONS, 

"TV  yT~ORE  depends  upon  what  the 
•*•*-**-  teacher  is,  than  upon  what  he 
does.  Like  the  poet,  he  is  endowed  by 
Nature  with  the  most  important  qualifi- 
cations for  his  work ;  nascitur  non  Jit. 
This  natural  talent  may  be  cultivated, 
but  cannot  be  created  by  education. 

The  true  teacher  has  a  large  share  of 
common  sense,  or,  as  some  would  call  it, 
good  judgment.  This  is  practical  wis- 
dom,—  a  sort  of  instinct  as  to  the  fitness 
and  propriety  of  things.  It  teaches  its 
possessor  to  do  the  right  thing  at  the 
right  time.  It  acts  in  the  real,  and  not 

196 


HIS  QUALIFICATIONS.  197 

in  the  romantic  world,  and  adapts  one 
to  circumstances,  to  society,  and  to  duty. 

There  are  many  opportunities  for  its 
exercise  in  the  schoolroom;  many  in- 
stances when  the  want  of  it  imperils  the 
teacher,  or  proves  his  ruin.  A  question 
of  judicial  economy  is  about  to  be  set- 
tled in  his  little  empire  :  he  has  no  time 
for  consultation  with  older  and  more 
experienced  teachers;  no  time  to  read 
books  on  the  "  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Teaching ; "  the  question  must  be  set- 
tled without  delay ;  the  existence  of  his 
authority,  and  his  destiny  as  a  teacher, 
depend  upon  prompt  and  judicious  ac- 
tion. Under  such  circumstances  sound 
common  sense  is  the  teacher's  only 
security. 

The  successful  teacher  has  an  earnest 
devotion  to  his  work.  The  employment 
is  congenial  to  his  tastes;  he  has  a  natu- 
ral love  for  the  office  for  its  own  sake  ; 


198  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

the  detail  of  schoolroom  life  is  pleasant ; 
intercourse  with  the  pupils  a  social  and 
intellectual  gratification  ;  teaching  an 
agreeable  exercise ;  and  the  conscious- 
ness of  having  contributed  to  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  good  of  the  young  his 
ample  reward.  If  this  is  not  the  case, 
if  the  teacher's  tastes,  interests,  and  am- 
bition are  not  in  his  employment,  no 
amount  of  talent,  no  intellectual  attain- 
ments, can  fit  him  to  instruct  and  man- 
age a  school. 

A  cheerful  and  hopeful  disposition  is 
also  essential  to  success  in  teaching. 
The  radiant  smile  of  cheerfulness  is  the 
sunlight  of  the  schoolroom  which,  dif- 
fuses itself  through  the  atmosphere,  and 
is  reflected  from  every  countenance.  It 
wakes  to  new  life  the  slumbering  ener- 
gies of  the  mind,  and  creates  an  abiding 
interest  in  the  duties  and  scenes  of 
school-life.  The  cheerful  teacher  makes 


HIS  QUALIFICATIONS.  199 

his  pupils  cheerful ;  but  sadness  and  dis- 
couragement on  his  countenance  burden 
the  mental  atmosphere  with  gloom,  and 
chill  the  very  life-blood  of  vigorous 
thought. 

Hope  is  also  an  essential  element  in 
the  teacher's  character.  He  must  be 
inspired  with  faith  in  human  nature  and 
human  progress  in  the  moral  and  in- 
tellectual capacity  of  his  pupils,  in  the 
power  of  good  instruction  and  good 
example  to  improve  and  elevate  the 
mind,  and  in  the  vast  importance  of  his 
own  sphere  of  influence  in  educating 
and  forming  the  character  of  those  com- 
mitted to  his  charge.  Hope  built  upon 
such  faith  is  strong  and  powerful  as  a 
stimulus  to  efficient  action. 

A  natural  and  earnest  sympathy  with 
the  young  is  another  valuable  trait  in 
the  character  of  the  teacher.  With  him 
life  should  ever  be  young.  He  must  be 


200  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

fond  of  the  society  of  children  and 
youth  ;  must  partake  largely  of  their 
hopes,  their  joys,  and  their  enthusiasm, 
and  must  be  sensitively  alive  to  all  that 
troubles  them.  Such  a  teacher  has  a 
sympathy,  an  interest,  an  affection,  for 
his  pupils  which  will  create  in  their 
minds  corresponding  feelings,  and  give 
him  power  and  influence  over  them  that 
can  be  gained  in  no  other  way.  He 
can  mingle  in  their  sports  without  los- 
ing his  dignity  or  authority ;  can  re- 
prove and  correct  them  without  provok- 
ing their  ill-will.  Such  a  master  will 
succeed. 

Aptness  to  teach  is  also  a  gift  of 
Nature :  still  it  may  be  improved  by 
culture.  Quickness  of  perception  and 
accurate  knowledge  are  important ;  but 
the  most  brilliant  scholars  are  not 
usually  the  best  teachers.  The  power 
to  communicate  and  instruct,  so  as  to 


HIS  QUALIFICATIONS.  201 

gain  the  attention  and  wake  up  the 
mind  of  the  pupil,  is  the  indispensable 
gift  to  which  we  allude.  This  enables 
the  teacher  to  adapt  his  instructions  to 
the  peculiarities  of  his  pupils.  Some 
need  encouragement,  others  caution, 
and  still  others  rebuke,  according  as 
they  are  timid,  ambitious,  or  self-suffi- 
cient. Aptness  to  teach  implies  skill  in 
the  selection  and  use  of  illustration.  It 
guides  the  teacher  as  to  the  amount  of 
instruction  to  be  given,  that  he  may  not 
make  the  task  of  the  pupil  too  easy,  but 
simply  possible.  In  a  word,  it  instructs 
him  when  to  teach,  how  to  teach,  and 
how  much  to  teach. 

Earnestness  and  perseverance  are 
among  the  necessary  qualities  in  the 
teacher. 

These  qualities  are  indispensable  to  suc- 
cess in  any  department  of  labor.  Look 
where  you  will  for  examples,  the  same 


202  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

truth  is  illustrated.  The  earnest  man 
succeeds ;  the  indolent,  though  possessed 
of  more  talents  and  greater  attainments, 
often  fails.  The  earnest  and  determined 
teacher  not  only  performs  much  more 
labor  in  the  same  time,  but  inspires  all 
around  him  with  his  own  spirit.  He  in- 
fuses life  and  animation  into  the  minds 
of  all,  awakens  new  interest  in  study, 
and  exerts  a  commanding  influence  which 
is  felt  not  only  in  the  schoolroom,  but 
also  in  the  district  and  town  where  he 
resides.  He  is  a  living,  breathing,  acting 
spirit.  Enthusiasm  \_God  in  us]  has 
taken  possession  of  his  soul.  He  has 
caught  the  divine  idea  of  education,  and 
feels  a  divine  solicitude  to  acquit  himself 
in  a  manner  corresponding  to  the  impor- 
tance of  his  work. 

His  earnestness  and  eagerness  to  ac- 
complish his  object  call  forth  a  corre- 
sponding effort.  No  obstacles  intimidate, 


HIS  QUALIFICATIONS. 

no  difficulties  discourage  him ;  he  feels 
no  misgivings,  he  knows  no  defeat. 
Such  a  teacher  has  power,  by  his 
presence,  to  create  order  out  of  con- 
fusion, and  to  make  his  school  popular, 
profitable,  and  successful. 

The    efficient    teacher   must    have    a 
sound  and  well-cultivated  mind. 

A  sound  mind  is  not  only  the  founda- 
tion of  true  manhood,  but  the  source 
of  all  successful  efforts.  It  is  conceded 
that  respectable  talents  are  necessary  to 
fit  the  young  man  for  successful  business, 
or  efficiency  in  any  one  of  the  mechan- 
ical arts  or  professions.  For  the  factory, 
the  workshop,  the  counting-room,  we 
demand  young  persons  of  talent,  and 
can  less  be  required  of  those  who  are 
to  occupy  the  important  position  of 
teachers  ? 

And   this   mind  must  be  cultivated; 
must  acquire  the  power  to  think,  to  ana- 


204  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

lyze,  and  reason.  An  undisciplined  mind 
is  unfit  to  educate  other  minds.  It  cannot 
appreciate  the  importance  of  systematic 
culture,  or  employ  the  means  necessary 
to  secure  it.  Without  the  power  and 
habit  of  well-regulated  thought,  the 
teacher  can  himself  have  no  available 
knowledge;  and,  if  he  had,  he  could 
have  no  power  to  impart  it  to  others. 
Hence,  every  teacher  should  be  thor- 
oughly disciplined  by  classical  and 
mathematical  study.  These  furnish 
the  most  direct  means  of  securing 
mental  discipline. 

But  discipline  is  not  the  only  advan- 
tage derived  from  such  studies.  The 
study  of  Latin  is  indispensable  to  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  English 
language,  and  the  most  successful  way 
to  learn  that  language.  To  illustrate :  al- 
low any  two  individuals  of  equal  age  and 
equal  capacity  to  commence  the  study  of 


HIS  QUALIFICATIONS.  205 

the  English  language  with  a  view  to  make 
the  greatest  possible  attainments  in  two 
years.  The  one  may  study  English 
grammar  during  the  whole  time,  and 
under  proper  instruction ;  the  other  may 
spend  his  first  year  (one-half  the  time 
allowed)  hi  the  study  of  Latin;  the 
second  year  he  may  spend  in  the  study 
of  English,  and  the  latter  will  be  the 
better  English  grammarian  when  the 
two  years  have  expired.  The  study  of 
the  higher  mathematics  is  also  of  great 
service  to  the  common-school  teacher. 
It  adds  strength  and  vigor  to  his  mental 
powers,  and  affords  him  a  knowledge  of 
the  principles  necessary  to  explain  arith- 
metic and  the  practical  natural  sciences. 
The  facts  and  principles  of  the  branch- 
es to  be  taught  must  be  thoroughly 
understood.  And,  if  the  teacher  would 
do  himself  justice,  he  must  extend  his 
knowledge  far  beyond  his  present  neces- 


206  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

sity  and  requisitions.  He  cannot  teach 
clearly  in  the  twilight  of  his  own  knowl- 
edge, nor  communicate  more  definite 
information  than  he  himself  possesses. 
All  branches  of  science  are  connected. 
No  one  branch  can  be  properly  taught 
and  illustrated  without  the  aid  of  others. 
With  a  knowledge  of  the  lesson  to  be 
taught,  merely,  the  teacher  may  be  able 
to  throw  some  light  upon  the  subject  be- 
fore him ;  but  it  is  like  the  light  of  the 
sun  where  there  is  no  atmosphere  to  dif- 
fuse and  reflect  it,  —  all  in  one  direction, 
and  total  darkness  everywhere  else. 
The  range  of  the  teacher's  studies  should, 
therefore,  be  extensive,  and  his  knowl- 
edge liberal.  He  should  be  familiar  with 
all  the  principles  that  can  aid  in  the  ex- 
planation of  the  subjects  to  be  taught. 
He  should  gather  up  and  preserve  all 
attainable  facts  and  incidents  to  be  found 
in  the  wide  field  of  science  and  history. 


HIS  QUALIFICATIONS.  207 

All  passing  events  should  be  preserved 
for  use  in  the  schoolroom. 

In  a  word,  the  teacher  should  be  con- 
stantly reading,  observing,  and  thinking, 
for  the  benefit  of  his  pupils  and  the  hon- 
or of  his  profession. 

Another  desirable  quality  in  a  school- 
teacher is  self-respect.  This  implies  a 
consciousness  of  integrity  which  makes 
one  strong  in  the  discharge  of  his  duties ; 
it  gives  its  possessor  noble  aims  and  hon- 
orable motives,  and  enables  him  to  hold 
a  commanding  position  among  his  pupils, 
and  to  exert  a  healthful  influence  over 
them.  Self-respect  also  implies  self-reli- 
ance, or  a  confidence  in  one's  own  ability 
and  qualifications  for  his  office.  Such  a 
teacher  is  not  ostentatious,  but  simply 
self-confident.  Difficulties  do  not  intim- 
idate nor  disturb  him,  because  he  feels 
himself  adequate  to  surmount  them. 
He  rightly  judges  himself  worthy  of  his 


208  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

own  confidence  and  esteem,  and  is  sure 
to  gain  the  respect  and  confidence  of  his 
pupils,  so  necessary  to  his  success  and 
usefulness. 

Self-respect  is  intimately  connected 
with  self-control.  This,  also,  is  essential 
to  success  in  school-keeping.  Without 
it,  a  master  is  like  a  ship  without  a  helm. 
In  calm  weather  he  may  experience  no 
serious  difficulty ;  but  when  the  storm 
comes,  and  the  winds  blow,  as  surely 
they  will,  he  has  no  security  from  wreck 
and  ruin  but  in  his  own  self-possession. 
The  teacher  whose  mind  is  thoroughly 
disciplined  and  well  balanced  can  com- 
mand his  knowledge  ;  can  apply  himself 
to  any  subject,  whether  literary  or  judi- 
cial. His  understanding,  reason,  and 
judgment  are  ready  for  any  emergency ; 
hence  his  efficiency. 

Self-control  also  gives  authority.  To 
be  qualified  to  govern  others,  the  master 


HIS  QUALIFICATIONS.  209 

must  govern  himself,  his  temper  and  his 
tongue.  His  power  to  quell  a  raging  tu- 
mult or  crush  a  rebellion  lies  in  his  cool- 
ness. Authority  is  undoubtedly  a  gift 
of  nature ;  but  it  is,  in  a  measure,  the 
result  of  other  cardinal  and  cultivated 
qualities,  principle,  decision,  indepen- 
dence, dignity,  disinterestedness,  and  re- 
finement are  all  commanding ;  they 
give  power  and  impression  to  the  whole 
man ;  they  speak  out  in  his  eye,  his  step, 
his  voice,  and  in  all  his  movements  and 
expressions.  Such  self-respect  and  such 
self-control  gain  for  the  teacher  his  true 
position  as  instructor  and  governor  of 
his  school.  After  all,  the  teacher,  to  be 
efficient,  must  ^professionally  educated. 
De  Witt  Clinton  has  said,  "  Teaching 
ought  to  be  among  the  learned  profes- 
sions." And  why  not  ?  May  we  require 
a  young  man  to  pass  through  a  course  of 
professional  training  before  he  can 


210  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

practice  law  or  medicine,  or  become  a 
respectable  mechanic,  and  yet  require 
no  special  training  of  the  teacher,  whose 
profession  is  more  important  than  any 
other  ? 

Must  the  lawyer  make  himself  famil- 
iar with  constitutional  principles  and 
legislative  enactments,  in  order  to  be 
qualified  to  settle  our  difficulties ;  must 
the  physician  understand  the  laws  of 
our  physical  being,  the  nature  of  disease 
and  its  remedies,  in  order  to  be  allowed 
to  administer  to  the  health  of  the  body ; 
must  the  mechanic  serve  a  three  years' 
apprenticeship  before  he  is  allowed  to 
build  a  house ;  and  shall  the  teacher, 
to  whom  is  committed  the  great  work  of 
training  the  human  mind  for  life  and  im- 
mortality, during  the  most  impressible 
and  formative  period  of  its  existence,  be 
allowed  no  special  preparation  ? 

It   is   a   serious   reflection   upon   the 


BIS  QUALIFICATIONS.  211 

boasted  intelligence  of  American  mind, 
that  so  little  interest  has  been  felt  upon 
this  subject,  and  so  large  a  proportion  of 
all  our  teachers  have  been  so  entirely 
unfitted  for  their  responsible  duties. 
Teaching  should  be  recognized  as  a  pro- 
fession; the  teacher  should  be  satisfied 
with  nothing  short  of  a  thorough  pro- 
fessional education ;  and,  when  fully 
qualified,  he  should  receive  that  com- 
pensation and  encouragement  which  his 
self-sacrifice  and  devotion  to  the  good  of 
the  rising  generation  so  richly  merit. 
While  he  honors  his  profession  he  should 
be  honored  for  the  sake  of  it.  But  the 
mere  "novice  in  the  trade,"  who  has 
chosen  teaching  only  to  avoid  more  un- 
pleasant labor,  or  to  gain  the  means  to 
accomplish  the  object  of  his  own  per- 
sonal ambition,  having  no  interest  in  the 
business  or  idea  of  his  responsibility, 
should  be  driven  from  the  field  as  un- 


212  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

worthy  the  high  position  which  he  occu- 
pies. Why  should  not  the  profession 
of  teaching  be  as  exalted,  and  be  made 
as  exclusive,  as  any  other  ?  No  good 
reason  can  be  assigned.  It  is  gratifying 
and  encouraging  to  mark  the  progress 
that  has  been  made  in  this  direction, 
during  the  last  ten  years.  Normal 
schools  have  been  established  in  nearly 
every  State  in  the  Union,  and  several 
States  are  appropriating  largely  to  sup- 
port them. 

New  York  State  now  has  nine  and 
Massachusetts  six,  in  full  operation. 

According  to  the  last  annual  report  of 
the  Commissioner  of  Education,  the  to- 
tal number  of  normal  schools  in  the 
United  States  is  eighty-one.  The  num- 
ber of  pupils  attending  them  is  about 
six  thousand. 

Everywhere  the  demand  for  better 
qualified  teachers  is  becoming  more  and 


HIS  QUALIFICATIONS.  213 

more  imperative,  and  the  employment, 
more  elevated  and  honorable.  Hence, 
it  becomes  all  candidates  for  this  high- 
office  to  avail  themselves  of  these  in- 
creased facilities  for  professional  training. 
In  no  other  way  can  they  meet  the  wants 
of  the  age,  and  render  themselves  wor- 
thy of  their  high  calling. 

Last,  but  not  least,  among  the  necessary 
qualifications  of  the  school-teacher  here 
to  be  enumerated  is  moral  and  Christian 
character.  Every  teacher  should  be  a 
model  of  excellence.  No  position  in  life 
demands  higher  attainments,  as  none 
commands  a  more  important  influence. 
Children  are  fine  copyists.  They  re- 
ceive their  earliest  and  most  durable  im- 
pressions by  imitation.  Their  teacher  is 
always  sitting  or  standing  before  them 
for  his  likeness.  The  impressions  of 
his  feelings,  principles,  and  character, 
and  especially  the  defects  in  his  charac- 


214  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

ter,  are  left,  in  the  ambrotype  of  the 
schoolroom,  upon  the  imperishable  tab- 
lets of  the  immortal  mind.  The  pupil 
may  be  expected  to  exhibit  his  teacher 
before  the  world.  He  often  assumes  his 
airs,  imitates  his  tones,  habits,  and  almost 
his  very  looks.  He  copies  his  rough- 
ness, stereotypes  his  oddities,  and  per- 
petuates his  errors  and  blunders.  The 
results  of  these  early  impressions  and  of 
this  influence  will  be  felt  upon  future 
generations.  The  teacher  is  doing  his 
most  important  work,  then,  when  he 
seems  to  be  idle. 

And  let  it  not  be  forgotten,  that  edu- 
cation does  not  begin  with  the  alphabet, 
nor  end  when  the  scholar  takes  his  di- 
ploma. It  consists  not  entirely  in  tasks 
and  recitations.  Character  teaches ; 
intelligence,  politeness,  candor,  mag- 
nanimity, veracity,  kindness,  worship, 
moral  and  Christian  integrity,  all  have 


HIS  QUALIFICATIONS.  215 

an  important  plastic  power  in  the  school- 
room. But  "  these  are  no  juvenile 
graces  meant  to  be  set  on  children's 
breasts  by  grown-up  teachers  on  whose 
own  lives  their  glory  never  gleams."  If 
we  would  cultivate  in  our  children  that 
Christian  morality  which  alone  can  exalt 
their  character,  and  fit  them  for  useful- 
ness and  happiness  in  life ;  if  we  hope 
to  see  them  respected  and  honored  for 
their  integrity  and  virtue ;  and  if  we 
would,  through  them,  transmit  to  coming 
generations  the  fruits  and  blessings  of 
our  holy  religion,  —  we  must  demand 
teachers  who  possess  the  principles  and 
spirit  of  true  piety. 

No  person,  therefore,  should  presume 
to  enter  upon  the  responsibilities  of  the 
teacher's  office  who  has  not,  in  active 
exercise,  every  principle  of  true  man- 
hood or  womanhood,  every  element  of 
a  noble  character,  mental,  moral,  and  re- 
ligious. 


216  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

No  reader  will  regret  that  I  here  put 
on  record  Goldsmith's  immortal  "Village 
Schoolmaster." 

"  Beside  yon  straggling  fence  that  skirts  the  way, 
With  blossomed  furze  unprofitably  gay, 
There,  in  his  noisy  mansion,  skilled  to  rule, 
The  village  master  taught  his  little  school. 
A  man  severe  he  was,  and  stern  to  view  : 
I  knew  him  well,  and  every  truant  knew. 
Well  had  the  boding  tremblers  learned  to  trace 
The  day's  disasters  in  his  morning  face ; 
Full  well  they  laughed  with  counterfeited  glee 
At  all  his  jokes,  for  many  a  joke  had  he ; 
Full  well  the  busy  whisper,  circling  round, 
Conveyed  the  dismal  tidings  when  he  frowned. 
Yet  he  was  kind,  or,  if  severe  in  aught, 
The  love  he  bore  to  learning  was  in  fault. 
The  village  all  declared  how  much  he  knew  : 
'Twas  certain  he  could  write,  and  cipher  too ; 
Lands  he  could  measure,  storms  and  tides  presage ; 
And  even  the  story  ran  that  he  could  gauge ; 
In  arguing,  too,  the  parson  owned  his  skill, 
For  even  though  vanquished,  he  could  argue  still ; 
While  words  of  learned  length  and  thundering  sound 
Amazed  the  gazing  rustics  ranged  around ; 
And  still  they  gazed,  and  still  the  wonder  grew, 
That  one  small  head  could  carry  all  he  knew." 


IV. 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS  TO  TEACHERS. 

HUS,  fellow-teachers,  I  have  aimed 
-*-  to  present  you  very  briefly  some 
practical  thoughts  upon  school-keeping. 
I  trust  you  will  appreciate  my  motives, 
with  however  little  favor  you  may  re- 
gard my  efforts.  All  that  is  valuable  for 
you  as  teachers  must  be  learned  either 
from  those  "  who  have  borne  the  heat 
and  burden  of  the  day,"  or  from  your 
own  experience  in  the  "  wear  and  tear  " 
of  teaching.  Mere  theory  and  philoso- 
phy have  no  place  in  the  management 
and  instruction  of  schools.  The  teacher 
deals  only  with  facts.  He  is  eminently 

217 


218  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

a  practical  man  or  woman,  and  must  take 
a  practical,  common-sense  view  of  every 
thing.  Besides,  — 

"  Teacher  I  to  thyself 
Tbou  hast  assumed  responsibilities 
Of  crushing  weight.     A  mighty,  peerless  work 
Is  thine.     The  golden  chords  attuned  by  thee, 
Or  grown  by  thy  neglect  discordant,  not 
In  time  alone,  but  through  the  limitless 
Expanse  of  all  eternity,  shall  throb  ; 
And  should  one  note,  which  thou,  by  greater  care, 
More  zealous  labors,  or  by  added  skill, 
Might  now  attune  in  harmony,  be  found 
At  last  in  dissonance  with  virtue,  truth, 
Or  mental  symmetry,  in  Heaven's  sight, 
Methinks  a  fearful  guilt  will  on  thee  rest. 
Thou  hast  to  do  with  God's  most  noble  work  I 
The  unage  fair,  and  likeness  of  himself  1 
Immortal  raiiid.     That  emanation  bright 
From  his  Divinity  !  Sole  transfer  made 
To  man  from  his  own  deathless  nature  !     Such, 
Instructor,  is  thy  trust !  Thus  sacred,  high, 
And  precious,  e'en  beyond  all  finite  power 
To  estimate,  thy  holy  charge  !  No  work 
Of  art,  or  finest  mechanism  in  things 
Material,  hath  e'er  so  challenged  for 
Its  right  discharge  e'en  the  vast  aggregate 
Of  human  skill. " 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  219 

Look  well,  then,  to  your  qualifications 
for  the  great  work  which  you  have  un- 
dertaken. Have  you  as  much  common- 
sense,  devotion  to  your  work,  cheerful- 
ness and  hope,  natural  sympathy  with 
the  young,  aptness  to  teach,  energy  of 
character,  mental  power  and  cultivation, 
self-respect,  self-control,  professional 
knowledge,  and  moral  integrity,  as  is 
necessary  to  fit  you  for  your  important 
duties  ? 

We  need  the  noblest  order  of  minds 
for  this  work.  We  need  persons  of  ripe, 
extensive,  thorough  scholarship  ;  persons 
of  refined,  elegant  tastes,  and  high  and 
commanding  intellects ;  but  they  must 
be  individuals  of  perfected  power,  who 
can  communicate  themselves,  as  well  as 
their  learning,  —  individuals  of  profound 
impulses  and  burning  sympathies,  who 
have  souls  to  move  the  world.  There  is 
an  acknowledged  want  of  this  kind  of 


220  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

personal  power  in  many  of  our  teachers. 
They  may  exhibit  no  prominent  defects 
either  in  character  or  attainments  ;  may, 
indeed,  be  living  editions  of  text-books, 
capable  of  patient  elaborations  and 
learned  comments  on  the  subjects  before 
them :  but  they  are  destitute  of  all  vital, 
transmissive,  inspiring  influence ;  no 
virtue  goes  out  of  them  as  they  mingle 
with  their  scholars ;  they  never  stir 
the  deep  fountain  of  their  souls,  nor 
awaken  in  their  bosoms  those  lofty 
sentiments  that  incite  to  greater  efforts 
and  nobler  deeds.  The  teacher  who 
cannot  rouse  his  pupils  to  think  and  act 
for  themselves,  who  is  satisfied  to  drag 
the  almost  lifeless  body  of  an  uninter- 
ested class  through  formal  recitations, 
does  not  deserve  the  name  he  bears. 
No  matter  how  great  his  abilities,  or  how 
extensive  his  learning,  his  main  work  is 
left  undone.  The  high  office  of  the 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  221 

teacher  reaches  far  beyond  the  mere 
formalities  of  the  schoolroom.  "  Where 
acquisition  ends,  the  highest  education 
begins ;  "  hence,  the  paramount  aim  of 
the  teacher  should  be  to  cultivate  the 
faculties  and  cherish  the  spirit  of  a  no- 
bler life.  If  he  possesses  such  a  power, 
an  unconscious  tuition  will  be  felt  upon  all 
around  him ;  his  spirit  will  have  all  the 
glow  that  imagination  kindles,  and  will 
be  filled  with  impulses  more  stirring  than 
chivalry  ever  excited.  Such  a  spirit 
will  consecrate  him  to  his  work,  and 
bear  him  through  his  labors  as  a  glorious 
pastime. 

Now,  fellow-teacher,  the  question  is, 
have  you  these  qualifications  and  this  spir- 
it ?  If  you  are  conscious  that  you  do  not 
possess  these  qualities  (in  some  degree 
at  least),  and  have  not  the  power  and 
determination  to  acquire  them,  you  may 
safely  conclude  that  you  have  mistaken 


222  TEACHER'S  MANUAL, 

your  calling,  and  should  at  once  re- 
linquish it,  to  engage  in  some  employ- 
ment less  responsible  and  more  congenial 
to  your  habits  and  tastes. 

"  For  woe  to  him  who  brings, 
Or  ignorance  or  recklessness,  to  such 
Pursuit !  Let  him  the  rather  dig,  or  beg 
From  door  to  door  his  daily  food,  and  live 
At  peace  with  God,  and  in  Lis  sight  absolved, 
Than  tamper  with  expanding  mind  ;  for  if 
Unsightly  mould  he  doth  perchance  impart, 
No  power  resides  on  earth  to  e'er  repair 
The  seemless  havoc  he  hath  wrought.     His  work, 
Howe'er  achieved,  whate'er  its  consequent, 
How  done,  is  done  for  aye." 

If,  however,  you  are  conscious  that 
you  possess  the  requisite  qualifications  to 
enter  upon  such  duties,  let  your  aim  be 
high.  Determine  to  elevate  and  honor 
your  profession.  Let  no  opportunity  for 
self-culture  pass  unimproved.  No  teach- 
er has  already  attained  to  perfection ; 
every  one  should  strive  still  more  to  cul- 


CONCLUDING   REMARKS.  223 

tivate  his  mind  and  heart,  and  to  gain 
general  and  professional  knowledge. 
This  should  be  the  work  of  every  day  of 
his  life.  Would  you  engage  earnestly 
in  this  work  of  self-discipline,  learn  to 
make  the  most  of  time. 

Great  wealth  is  not  usually  acquired 
by  "  huge  windfalls,"  but  by  minute  and 
careful  accumulations.  The  little  sums 
which  many  would  deem  of  no  impor- 
tance, the  pennies  and  half-dollars,  are 
the  items  which  the  miser  has  year  by 
year  collected  and  preserved,  until  he 
has  reared  his  pyramid  of  fortune.  From 
the  miser's  success,  you  may  learn  the 
nobler  "avarice  of  time." 

The  German  critic,  who  learned  to 
repeat  the  Iliad  in  Greek,  had  no  months, 
weeks,  nor  days  to  spare  from  profes- 
sional labor.  He  employed  the  minutes 
spent  in  passing  from  one  patient's  door 
to  another,  in  his  daily  round  of  duty. 


224  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Dr.  Mason  Good's  translation  of  Lucre- 
tius was  composed  in  the  streets  of  Lon- 
don, under  similar  circumstances.  Dr. 
Burney,  the  great  musician,  acquired  the 
French  and  Italian  languages  while  rid- 
ing on  horse-back,  from  place  to  place,  to 
give  his  professional  instructions.  Elihu 
Burritt  and  Hugh  Miller  are  also  illustri- 
ous examples  of  what  may  be  accom- 
plished by  a  proper  use  of  time,  amid 
the  cares  and  labors  of  active  life.  You 
should  also  profit  by  such  economy,  and 
learn  how  to  use  fragments  of  time. 
You  should  "  glean  up  its  golden  dust ; 
those  raspings  and  parings  of  precious 
duration,  those  leavings  of  days  and 
remnants  of  hours  which  so  many  sweep 
out  into  the  waste  of  existence,"  and 
employ  them  all  in  study  and  efforts  to 
make  yourselves  better  teachers. 

To  the  same  end,  you  should  learn  to 
be  punctual.     This  is  important,  not  only 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  225 

in  your  efforts  for  self-improvement,  but 
also  for  your  success  in  the  management 
of  your  school.  As  a  habit  in  life,  punc- 
tuality is  invaluable.  Some  always  post 
their  letters  a  few  minutes  after  the  mail 
has  closed  ;  reach  the  wharf  just  in  time 
to  see  the  steamboat  off,  or  the  railroad 
depot  just  in  season  to  hear  the  whistle 
of  the  engine,  already  thundering  by. 
By  such  tardiness  much  time  is  lost  and 
much  inconvenience  realized.  So  in 
school-life. 

"  A  LITTLE  TOO  LATE  "  will  produce 
evils  that  industry  and  perseverance 
cannot  remove  ;  will  waste  precious  mo- 
ments that  no  pains  nor  toil  can  recover. 
Be  punctual,  then,  in  every  school  duty, 
and  also  in  those  personal  duties  that 
pertain  to  your  own  improvement. 

Method  and  promptitude  are  also  es- 
sential to  your  improvement  and  success. 
They  will  prevent  confusion  and  irregu- 


226  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

larity.  If  you  have  no  system,  or  delay 
until  to-morrow  what  ought  to  be  done 
to-day,  a  part  of  your  necessary  or  desira- 
ble work  will  remain  undone  through 
the  week,  through  the  year,  and  through 
life.  "  A  time  and  place  for  every 
thing,"  should  be  written  over  your 
door,  engraven  on  your  memory,  and 
wrought  into  your  fixed  habits.  Then 
school  duties  will  be  pleasant,  and  will 
be  so  performed  that  much  time  will  be 
saved  for  self-culture. 

Again,  I  would  urge  upon  you  the  im- 
portance of  singleness  of  purpose,  both 
as  a  means  of  success  and  a  duty.  I  do 
not  mean  that  you  should  be  a  "  man  of 
one  idea,"  and  know  nothing  beyond 
the  limited  sphere  of  your  own  profes- 
sion; but  that  teaching  should  be  the 
one  great  object  before  your  mind,  and 
that  you  should  devote  to  it  directly 
your  best  hours  and  your  best  thoughts. 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  227 

Says  one  of  our  able  thinkers  in  writing 
upon  the  importance  of  devoting  all  our 
energies  to  a  particular  calling,  "  The 
world  has  advanced  so  far  already,  its 
industries  are  so  wide  and  various,  the 
laws  that  govern  them  are  so  intricate, 
the  circumstances  which  dictate  success 
are  so  changeful,  that  no  one  man  can 
master  them  all.  One  branch  of  busi- 
ness is  as  much  as  one  head  can  manage 
well  at  a  time  :  one  life  is  none  too  long 
to  acquire  the  needed  experience.  The 
great  vineyard  of  human  activity  is 
mapped  out  in  sections ;  and  one  sec- 
tion is  all  any  of  you  can  cultivate  thor- 
oughly at  a  time.  If  a  man  is  a  ship- 
builder, he  need  not  go  outside  of  his 
trade  to  find  room  and  necessity  for  all 
his  talents  and  time ;  if  a  house-builder, 
he  must  give  his  entire  attention  to  the 
conditions  which  underlie  success  in  that 
branch  of  industry ;  if  a  preacher,  then 


228  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

let  him  remember  that  preachers  do  not 
grow  spontaneously ;  that  he  must  de- 
vote the  best  years  of  his  life  to  the  art, 
and  toil  until  his  head  whitens  before 
he  can  feel  that  the  gospel  receives  a  fit- 
utterance  through  his  lips.  The  preach- 
er must  press  the  richest  juices  of  his 
life  out  of  his  study,  if  he  would  have 
his  ministrations  like  rich  wine  to  the 
hearts  and  souls  of  his  hearers.  There 
is  no  such  thing,  there  never  will  be 
such  a  thing  again,  as  general  knowl- 
edge. All  knowledge  henceforth  will 
be  specific.  All  students  must  be  spe- 
cialists. An  engineer  must  be  an  engi- 
neer, and  feel  that  in  the  perfect  knowl- 
edge of  and  control  over  the  magnifi- 
cent power  intrusted  to  his  hands,  he 
has  mounted  a  throne,  and  holds  a  ter- 
rible sceptre.  An  engineer  said  to  me 
the  other  night,  as  I  sat  in  the  driving- 
house,  and  watched  him  while  he  sent 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  229 

his  engine  flying  into  the  fog  and  dark- 
ness at  the  rate  of  fifty  miles  an  hour, 
'  It  is  not  enough/  said  he,  putting  his 
lips  to  my  ear,  and  shouting,  so  that  I 
might  hear  his  words  amid  the  thunder- 
ing din,  '  it  is  not  enough  that  I  should 
have  an  eye-knowledge  of  this  engine  ; 
I  must  have  an  ear-knowledge  of  it. 
And,'  continued  he,  as  we  rolled  up  to  the 
junction,  '  there  is  not  a  screw,  a  bolt,  a 
valve,  or  any  part  of  this  engine,  which, 
should  it  get  out  of  its  place,  and  I  were 
blindfolded,  I  could  not  instantly  detect 
it  with  my  ear.  I  tell  you  sir,'  he  added, 
i  a  man  must  understand  his  business, 
when  he  undertakes  to  carry  safely 
seven  hundred  souls  so  near  eternity  as 
an  engine  rolls." 

So  you  as  a  teacher  must  understand 
your  business,  and  devote  yourself  with 
untiring  industry  and  earnestness  to 
your  profession  and  peculiar  work,  if  you 
would  gain  success  and  merit  honor. 


230  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Kindred  subjects  demand  a  certain  de- 
gree of  your  attention,  but  only  so  far  as 
they  subserve  to  the  same  purpose.  Let 
your  profession  be  contemplated  under 
the  similitude  of  a  river,  broad  and 
deep,  but  as  constituted  of  many  lesser 
streams,  by  whose  influence  it  has  been 
formed,  and  is  still  fed.  The  river 
should  engross  your  first  attention,  and 
all  the  smaller  streams  be  so  directed  as 
to  swell  the  main  channel. 

Professional  enthusiasm  is  of  two  kinds ; 
the  one  confines  itself  to  the  technicali- 
ties of  the  profession,  rejecting  every 
other  species  of  discipline  and  knowl- 
edge as  irrelevant  or  useless  ;  the  other 
seeks  the  fountains  from  which  the  trib- 
utaries flow,  and  aims  to  turn  every  thing 
into  the  deep  channel,  and  to  guide  even 
the  remotest  streams  of  knowledge  into 
the  swelling  current.  If  you  fully  ap- 
preciate the  greatness  of  the  work  you 


CONCLUDING  REMARKS.  231 

have  undertaken,  you  cannot  be  diverted 
from  your  noble  purpose,  however  wide 
your  range  of  study  and  observation. 
Happy  indeed,  if  pure  science  and  hard 
study  have  trained  your  mind  to  close 
and  vigorous  thought,  —  happy  if  the 
material  world  has  enlarged  your  soul  by 
her  lofty  contemplations,  —  happy  if  the 
classics  have  strengthened  your  reason- 
ing powers  and  cultivated  your  taste,  — 
happy  if  the  Muses  have  warmed  and 
exalted  your  imagination,  and  lifted  your 
thoughts  to  the  beautiful  and  sublime  in 
nature  and  art. 

Then  you  will  be  able  to  draw  from 
these  ample  stores  means  to  embellish 
your  work  and  honor  your  profession. 

Finally,  enter  upon  your  duties  with  a 
full  conviction  of  their  importance  and 
of  your  own  individual  responsibility. 
To  become  an  accomplished  teacher  is 
in  itself  a  purpose  worthy  of  your  highest 


232  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

and  noblest  ambition.  You  must  cher- 
ish this  feeling,  or  you  can  have  no  mo- 
tive to  put  forth  suitable  efforts  to  attain 
the  end  you  have  in  view. 

The  community  is  yet,  in  a  measure, 
ungrateful  and  insensible  to  the  impor- 
tance of  your  service  ;  hence  they  offer 
you  inadequate  compensation,  and  give 
you  too  little  encouragement.  Still  it  is 
true  that  you  "  stand  in  the  highest 
and  best  place  that  God  has  ordained  to 
man.  "  It  is  yours  "  to  form  a  human 
soul  to  virtue,  and  to  enrich  it  with 
knowledge,  —  an  office  inferior  only  to 
creating  power."  You  stand  on  holy 
ground ! 

"  Oh,  then,  be  wise  ! 
Be  every  measure  of  thy  choice,  to  aid 
In  forming  deathless  intellect,  the  fruit 
Of  earnest  study,  and  of  zealous  care  ; 
E'en  looking  to  the  boundless  future  of 
Its  destiny.     Thou  may'st  be  popular, 
Perchance,  but  seek  not  popularity 
As  motive-spring  of  any  act,  in  thy 


CONCLUDING  REMAKES.  233 

Profession.     Valiant  be,  and  ever  dare 

To  do  the  right,  though  all  the  gathered  hosts 

Of  Error  may  oppose.     Then,  if  thou  fail 

On  earth  thy  well-earned  measure  of  applause 

To  gain,  that  nobler  tribute  from  the  skies, 

'  Well  done,  thou  good  ;v  td  faithful  servant,'  shall 

Thy  glorious  mission  crown." 


Y. 

COMMON  SCHOOLS. 

THEIR    HISTORY    AND    IMPORTANCE. 

A  BRIEF  outline  of  the  history  of  a 
-^--*-  free  and  universal  education  can- 
not be  uninteresting  or  unprofitable  to 
the  teachers  of  our  public  schools.  The 
idea  of  educating  the  masses  found  ex- 
pression in  early  times,  but  the  develop- 
ment of  the  principle  has  been  very  slow 
and  unsatisfactory.  Sparta,  under  Ly- 
curgus,  adopted  a  system  of  public  in- 
struction; but  the  education  imparted  by 
the  State  was  mainly  physical,  and  even 
that  did  not  reach  the  peasantry. 

The  private  schools  of  Rome  were  nu- 

234 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  235 

merous ;  but  their  advantages  were  con- 
fined to  the  patricians  and  such  plebeians 
as  possessed  property.  To  Christianity 
we  are  indebted  for  our  system  of  com- 
mon schools.  With  its  accession  to  pow- 
er, the  duty  of  the  State  to  educate  its 
children  was  at  once  recognized  by  the 
bishops  and  the  clergy.  Their  chief  aim 
was  to  teach  the  doctrines  of  the  Church ; 
and  yet  this  was  the  first  recognition  of 
the  principle  of  universal  instruction,  and 
the  germ  from  which  our  system  has  been 
developed. 

In  the  year  529,  the  Council  of  Vai- 
son  recommended  the  establishment  of 
public  schools.  In  the  year  800,  a 
synod  at  Mentz  ordered  that  the  paro- 
chial priests  should  have  schools  in  the 
towns  and  villages,  "  that  the  children  of 
all  the  faithful  should  learn  letters  of 
them.  Let  them  receive  and  teach 
these  with  the  utmost  charity,  that  they 


236  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

themselves  may  shine  as  the  stars  for- 
ever. Let  them  receive  no  remunera- 
tion from  their  scholars,  unless  what  the 
parents  through  charity  may  voluntari- 
ly offer." 

In  the  year  836,  a  Council  at  Rome  or- 
dained that  there  should  be  three  kinds 
of  schools  throughout  Christendom, — 
"  Episcopal,  parochial  in  towns  and  vil- 
lages, and  others  wherever  there  could 
be  found  place  and  opportunity."  In 
the  year  1179,  the  Council  of  Lateran 
ordained  the  establishment  of  a  gram- 
mar school  in  every  cathedral  for  the 
free  instruction  of  the  poorer  classes. 
The  Council  of  Lyons  enlarged  and  en- 
forced this  ordinance  in  the  year  1245. 
Up  to  this  period,  the  education  of  the 
people  was  confined  to  this  mingled 
scholastic  and  religious  training.  And 
even  these  rudiments  of  knowledge  did 
not  reach  the  more  scattered  population 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  237 

of  the  rural  districts.  And  from  this 
time  up  to  the  era  of  the  Reformation, 
the  subject  of  popular  schools  received 
little  or  no  attention.  Luther  became 
the  champion  of  public  education,  and 
through  his  efforts  and  influence  the 
cause  received  a  new  impulse.  In  the 
year  1524,  Luther  wrote  an  address  to 
the  Common  Councils  of  all  the  cities  of 
Germany  in  behalf  of  Christian  Schools. 
In  this  address  we  find  the  following  sen- 
sible passages :  "  It  is  a  grave  and  seri- 
ous thing,  affecting  the  interest  of  the 
kingdom  of  Christ  and  of  the  world,  that 
we  apply  ourselves  to  the  work  of  aiding 
and  instructing  the  young ....  If  so 
much  be  expended  every  year  for  weap- 
ons of  war,  roads,  dams,  and  countless 
other  things  of  this  sort,  for  the  safety 
and  prosperity  of  a  city,  why  should  we 
not  expend  as  much  for  the  benefit  of 
the  poor  ignorant  youths  to  provide 


238  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

them  with  skilful  teachers  ?  "  This  is  a 
question  which  is  equally  appropriate  for 
our  own  times,  and  for  all  parts  of  our 
own  country. 

Again  Luther  spoke  on  this  subject, 
in  the  year  1526.  Let  us  hear  him: 
"  Government,  as  the  natural  guardian 
of  all  the  young,  has  the  right  to  com- 
pel the  people  to  support  schools.  What 
is  necessary  for  the  well-being  of  the 
State,  that  should  be  supplied  by  those 
who  enjoy  the  privilege  of  such  State. 
Now,  nothing  is  more  necessary  than  the 
training  of  those  who  are  to  come  after 
us  and  bear  rule.  If  the  people  are  too 
poor  to  pay  the  expense,  and  are  already 
burdened  with  taxes,  then  the  monastic 
funds  which  were  originally  given  for 
such  purposes  are  to  be  employed  in  that 
way  to  relieve  the  people." 

This  is  sound  doctrine,  and  as  impor- 
tant to  the  welfare  of  America  as  it  is  to 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  239 

Germany ;  as  applicable  to  the  nine- 
teenth as  to  the  sixteenth  century. 
Compulsory  education  here  had  its  ori- 
gin, and  its  beneficial  results  have  been 
fully  demonstrated  in  the  history  of  the 
German  school  system  and  of  the  Ger- 
man nation  ;  and  more  especially  in  the 
history  of  the  late  Franco-German  war. 
It  is  a  hopeful  sign  of  our  times,  that  the 
States  of  the  Union  are  beginning  to 
adopt  this  same  compulsory  system. 

It  is  not  enough  for  the  public  weal, 
that  free  schools  should  be  provided  at 
public  expense  ;  but  the  children  of  the 
State  must  be  compelled  to  attend  them, 
so  that  all  may  be  trained  for  private  and 
public  service. 

Luther  became  not  only  a  zealous  ad- 
vocate of  popular  education,  but  an  ear- 
nest worker  in  the  cause.  In  the  year 
1527,  with  the  aid  of  Melancthon,  he 
drew  up  the  so-called  Saxon  school  sys- 


240  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

tern,  and  through  his  life  he  devoted 
himself  with  earnestness  to  the  educa- 
tion of  all  classes  of  youth  in  the  free 
schools  which  he  had  helped  to  establish. 

The  labors  of  Luther  in  the  cause  of 
popular  education  were  continued  by 
such  Germans  as  Trolzendorf,  Sturm, 
Neander,  Ratich,  Helwig,  and  Amos  Co- 
menius  ;  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  Ger- 
man nation  has  attained  to  a  higher  de- 
gree of  excellence  than  any  other  nation 
on  earth. 

In  1618,  a  thirty-years'  war  broke 
out,  which  delayed  for  half  a  century  all 
educational  movements.  Such  is  always 
the  direct  influence  of  war  upon  civili- 
zation. It  may  have  an  influence  for 
good  upon  remote  ages ;  but  in  its  pres- 
ent aspect,  war  is  a  bloody  monster 
which  consumes  the  wealth,  and  destroys 
the  vitality  of  the  nations.  It  is  a  relic 
of  barbarism,  the  perfect  antagonism  of 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  241 

Christianity,  and  the  scourge  of  the  hu- 
man race. 

About  the  middle  of  the  17th  century, 
several  of  the  German  States,  having  re- 
covered from  the  terrible  war,  began 
again  to  look  after  the  interests  of  edu- 
cation. At  this  time  compulsory  laws 
were  enacted  and  enforced.  Later  in 
this  century  commenced  a  new  era  in 
the  educational  history  of  Germany. 
Two  distinguished  men,  Philip  J.  Spener 
and  August  H.  Frauche,  acted  an  im- 
portant part  in  carrying  forward  this 
great  work.  The  latter  especially  la- 
bored so  earnestly  and  effectually,  that 
his  influence  has  been  felt  by  every  gen- 
eration of  men  who  have  lived  since  his 
day.  Among  his  immediate  followers 
were  Zinzendorf,  Steinmetz,  Hecker, 
Rambalt,  Basedow,  Campe,  Salzmann, 
and  the  distinguished  Pestalozzi  whose 
thoughts  and  methods  are  made  the  ba- 

16 


242  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

sis  of  our  own  approved  system  of  in- 
struction. These  men  labored  and  have 
passed  away,  and  we  have  entered  into 
their  labors.  Indeed,  the  whole  civilized 
world  are  to-day  much  indebted  to 
Germany  for  the  light  and  civilization 
anywhere  enjoyed. 

The  popular  and  perfected  system  of 
education  which  is  now  enforced  in  Prus- 
sia, which  opens  her  schools  alike  to  the 
poor  and  the  rich,  was  not  introduced, 
to  any  extent,  until  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century.  And  yet  every  pro- 
vision which  long  experience,  deep  in- 
terest, and  profound  study  could  suggest, 
seems  to  have  been  adopted  to  render 
these  schools  the  most  perfect,  and  best 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  the  people,  of 
any  in  the  world. 

Scotland  is  the  only  other  country  on 
the  continent  which  can  boast  of  having 
an  early  system  of  popular  education ; 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  243 

and    this     originated     also    with     the 
clergy. 

John  Knox,  as  early  as  1560,  urged 
the  necessity  of  schools  for  the  children 
of  the  poor,  and  maintained  that  they 
should  be  sustained  on  the  charge  of  the 
kirk.  In  1696,  common  schools  were 
established  in  every  parish  in  Scotland. 
They  were  supported  partly  by  the  par- 
ish and  partly  by  rate -bills.  These 
schools  have  diffused  a  general  elemen- 
tary education  among  the  whole  people 
of  Scotland,  more  extensive  and  thor- 
ough than  in  any  nation  of  Europe  ex- 
cept Prussia.  And  these  schools  have 
always  been  under  the  charge  of  the 
kirk.  In  1843,  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land seceded ;  and  since  that  time  schools 
have  been  organized  in  connection  with 
each  congregation.  But  the  common- 
school  system  has  not  there  been  as  fully 
developed  as  in  Germany,  nor  as  fully  as 


244  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

we  may  hope  it  will  be  in  our  own  coun- 
try. This  will  depend,  however,  upon 
the  spirit  of  the  democracy  which 
wields  the  power  of  the  nation.  If  our 
free  institutions  are  founded  upon  intel- 
ligence and  virtue,  and  controlled  by 
law,  the  system  of  popular  education 
will  find  here  a  congenial  soil,  and  will 

* 

thrive  and  grow  to  perfection.  But  if 
we  adopt  the  mad  theory  of  the  u  Com- 
mune "  of  Paris,  that  universal  freedom 
means  unbounded  license,  our  school 
system  will  degenerate,  and  utterly  fail 
to  accomplish  its  object. 

The  Puritan  settlers  of  New  England 
believed  in  universal  education.  Hence, 
as  soon  as  they  had  provided  a  tempo- 
rary shelter  for  themselves,  they  erected 
the  church,  the  college,  and  the  school- 
house.  These  always  stand  side  by  side. 
Education  was  regarded  the  handmaid 
of  religion,  and  was  everywhere  cher- 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  245 

ished  and  sustained  with  the  same  care 
and  interest. 

But  the  first  schools  established  in 
this  country  were  not  common  schools, 
as  that  term  is  now  understood.  They 
were  called  free  grammar  schools,  and 
were  supported  in  part  by  the  proceeds 
of  land,  houses,  or  money  granted  by 
the  town  or  by  individuals,  and  in  part  by 
tuition  ;  and  they  were  free  only  to  the 
donors,  and  even  to  them  not  wholly  free. 

These  schools  were  established  first  in 
Charles  City,  in  Virginia,  in  1621 ;  in 
Boston,  in  1636 ;  in  New  Haven,  in 
1638  ;  in  Salem,  in  1641 ;  in  Roxbury, 
in  1645 ;  and  in  most  of  the  settled 
towns  of  New  England  within  four  or 
five  years  after  their  settlement.  These 
schools  gathered  in  the  larger  part  of  the 
children  in  every  parish,  but  not  all. 

The  free  common  school  of  our  times 
originated  in  New  England.  Both 


246  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  claim 
the  honor  of  its  first  establishment. 
The  first  act  of  legislation  upon  this 
subject  was  passed  in  Massachusetts,  in 
1647.  But  the  town  authorities  of 
Hartford,  Conn.,  had,  at  an  earlier  date, 
taken  broader  and  more  liberal  ground 
for  the  education  of  all  classes.  Her 
school  laws  soon  followed.  In  1642, 
Hartford  established  a  town  school  to 
be  supported  by  funds  from  the  public 
treasury. 

In  1643,  it  was  voted  "  that  the  town 
should  pay  the  schooling  of  the  poor, 
and  for  all  deficiencies."  The  spirit  of  this 
provision  still  governs  the  school  system 
of  Connecticut.  New  Hampshire  and 
Vermont,  then  colonies,  followed  the 
example  of  Massachusetts  and  Connec- 
ticut, and  established  schools  in  every 
neighborhood  where  the  number  of  chil- 
dren and  adults  were  enough  to  support 
a  teacher. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  247 

And  let  it  be  remembered,  that  these 
schools  were  sustained  under  the  most 
unfavorable  circumstances.  The  people 
were  poor,  and  yet  they  were  taxed  as 
people  were  never  taxed  before  nor 
since ;  taxed  for  imports  and  exports ; 
taxed  by  their  wars  with  the  Indians ; 
taxed  by  their  wars  with  the  French; 
taxed  for  the  support  of  an  able  minis- 
try, and  the  erection  of  houses  of  wor- 
ship ;  but  all  this  did  not  prevent  them 
from  making  liberal  provisions  for  their 
common  schools. 

In  1670,  the  Governor  of  Connecticut 
reported  that  "one-fourth  of  the  annual 
revenue  of  the  Colony  is  laid  out  in 
maintaining  free  schools  for.  the  educa- 
tion of  our  children.  "  And  here  we  re- 
call a  remarkable  contrast  in  the  early 
history  of  the  Colonies.  At  the  same 
time  that  the  Governor  of  Connecticut 
reported  as  above,  that  one-fourth  of  the 


248  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

annual  revenue  was  expended  in  support 
of  common  schools,  the  Governor  of  Vir- 
ginia replied  to  the  same  inquiry,  in  the 
following  strange  language  :  "  I  thank 
God  there  are  no  free  schools,  and  I  hope 
we  shall  not  have,  these  hundred  years." 
No  comment  is  necessary.  The  subse- 
quent history  of  our  country  reveals  the 
legitimate  working  of  these  two  systems. 
Soon  after  the  close  of  the  Revolution- 
ary war,  the  "  Western  Reserve  "  lands 
in  Ohio,  belonging  to  Connecticut,  came 
into  market.  "  Shall  they  be  sold  to  pay 
the  crushing  debt  brought  upon  the 
State  by  the  war,  and  to  relieve  the 
people  of  oppressive  taxation  ?  "  was  the 
inquiry  of  that  patriotic  people.  There 
were  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  such  a 
policy.  But  there  was  another  cause 
more  pressing  and  of  more  vital  interest 
to  the  State.  The  times  were  hard,  but 
the  rising  and  future  generations  must  be 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  249 

provided  for.  Present  poverty  was  bet- 
ter than  future  ignorance.  Present  suf- 
fering could  be  endured,  if  the  growing 
Commonwealth  could  be  enriched  by  the 
sacrifice.  So  these  patriots  reasoned, 
and  proceeded  to  consecrate  the  income 
of  that  vast  tract  of  land,  now  amount- 
ing to  more  than  two  million  dollars,  to 
the  support  of  the  common  schools  of  the 
State. 

To  the  same  cause,  Massachusetts  set 
apart  a  portion  of  her  wild  lands  in  the 
"  province  of  Maine."  Here  is  the  be- 
ginning of  our  public  schools  ;  and  in  the 
expression  of  these  enlightened  views  as 
to  the  importance  of  education,  and  in 
the  great  sacrifice  made  to  sustain  free 
schools,  is  revealed  the  secret  of  their 
success  in  these  noble  States. 

At  the  opening  of  the  present  century, 
the  *  New-England  school  system  was 
based  upon  five  prominent  ideas. 


250  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

1st.  The  instruction  of  all  the  chil- 
dren of  the  State  in  the  rudiments  of 
education.  This  was  to  be  accomplished 
by  district  schools  in  neighborhoods  con- 
taining fifty  householders  or  less. 

2d.  Each  district  was  to  be  indepen- 
dent of  every  other. 

3d.  A  superintendent  or  board  of 
visitors  (usually  consisting  of  profes- 
sional men,  and  always  including  the 
clergy),  to  examine  teachers,  inspect 
schools,  prescribe  text-books,  &c. 

4th.  The  support  of  the  schools  by 
taxation  and  rate-bills,  the  poor  being 
exempted. 

5th.  Power  to  compel  attendance.  Un- 
der the  operation  of  this  system,  educa- 
tion was  diffused  through  the  whole 
community,  and  untold  benefits  were 
realized.  And  similar  schools  were  soon 
introduced  into  New  York,  Ohio.,  and 
Pennsylvania. 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  251 

But  ere  long  interest  in  the  cause  be- 
gan to  decline,  and  the  condition  of  the 
schools  throughout  the  country  was  less 
hopeful  than  for  many  years  before.  In 
1817  the  subject  began  to  awaken  new 
interest  among  thinking  patriotic  men, 
and  new  efforts  to  elevate  the  standard 
of  our  common  schools  were  made. 
Organizations  for  educational  purposes 
were  formed  in  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Boston,  Portland,  Lancaster,  Pittsburg, 
Worcester,  Hartford,  Lowell,  Providence, 
Cincinnati,  and  other  cities  and  towns. 
A  revision  of  school  systems  followed, 
under  the  guidance  of  such  men  as 
Thomas  H.  Gallaudet,  James  G.  Carter, 
and  Walter  R.  Johnson. 

The  labors  of  these  men,  aided  by  the 
press,  did  much  to  elevate  the  standard 
of  instruction,  and  to  create  public  opin- 
ion in  favor  of  .professionally  trained 
teachers. 


252  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

This  educational  revival  is  still  exert- 
ing its  influence  upon  the  public  mind 
for  the  elevation  of  our  schools. 

One  of  the  direct  results  of  this  agita- 
tion was  the  establishment  of  education- 
al journals  and  State  and  county 
associations.  The  "American  Journal 
of  Education  "  was  established  in  1826, 
and  a  little  later  the  "  American  Annals 
of  Education."  The  organization  of 
teachers'  institutes,  and  the  founding  of 
normal  schools  for  the  education  of 
teachers,  followed  these  efforts.  The 
names  of  Horace  Mann  and  Henry  Bar- 
nard are  associated  with  these  earnest 
efforts  and  permanent  improvements. 
Before  the  late  civil  war,  educational 
journals  were  published  in  nearly  all 
the  States  of  the  Union.  Many  of  these, 
I  am  sorry  to  say,  have  been  discontin- 
ued. Normal  schools  are  now  established 
in  nearly  all  the  States,  and  have  be- 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  253 

come  permanent  institutions.  Teach- 
er's Institutes  continue  to  be  held,  and 
State  and  national  educational  associa- 
tions have  become  important  agencies 
for  the  advancement  of  our  common 
cause. 

It  remains  to  mark  the  leading  char- 
acteristics of  our  improved  school  sys- 
tem. They  differ  somewhat  in  detail  in 
the  different  Northern  States,  but  in 
their  main  features  are  not  unlike. 

A  system  of  graded  schools  has  been 
established  in  most  of  the  cities  and 
large  towns.  These  embrace  primary 
schools  for  the  younger  scholars,  with 
books,  apparatus,  and  teachers  adapted 
to  their  peculiar  wants.  Second,  gram- 
mar schools  for  the  more  advanced  pu- 
pils, in  which  are  taught  the  ordinary 
and  higher  branches.  The  third  and 
highest  grade  is  designed  for  the  more 
advanced  pupils,  who  study  the  higher 


254  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

mathematics  and  languages,  and  such 
other  branches  as  fit  them  for  business- 
life  or  for  college. 

The  advantage  of  this  graded  system 
cannot  be  over-estimated.  It  secures 
perfect  classification,  according  to  the 
attainments  and  standing  of  the  pupils. 
It  brings  together  those  of  the  .same 
age,  who  have  a  common  interest  and 
common  sympathy  ;  and  hence  they  are 
much  more  profited  than  they  could  be 
in  a  mixed  and  unclassified  condition. 
This  system  also  enables  school  officers 
to  select  teachers  who  are  especially 
fitted  for  their  own  particular  depart- 
ments. 

It  secures  the  advantages  of  a  com- 
plete division  of  labor,  full  time  for  class 
recitation,  and  a  more  complete  super- 
vision of  the  school.  One  principal 
superintends  every  department;  his 
teachers  are  employed  permanently,  and 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  255 

hence,  they  not  only  understand  the 
wants  of  their  pupils  but  feel  a  deeper 
interest  in  their  improvement.  More 
regularity  and  punctuality  of  attendance 
and  a  greater  uniformity  of  text-books 
are  secured.  Happy  the  day  when  there 
shall  be  a  graded  school  of  high  order 
in  every  town  in  the  nation. 

And  our  modern  school  systems  are 
characterized  by  more  thoroughness. 
This  would  naturally  result  from  better 
classification  of  the  school,  and  the  more 
thorough  discipline  of  the  teacher, 
in  his  own  personal  training.  And  it 
results  also  from  the  more  frequent  pri- 
vate and  public  examinations.  These 
stimulate  the  teacher  to  more  care  and 
fidelity,  and  the  pupil  to  more  effort. 
They  serve  to  awaken  an  interest  among 
parents  in  their  school,  and  to  inspire 
confidence  and  self-reliance  in  the  schol- 
ars. They  induce  earnest  study  and 


256  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

frequent  and  careful  reviews,  and  lead 
to  the  thorough  mastery  of  the  subject 
investigated. 

The  importance  of  the  common  school 
is  seen  in  the  fact  that  no  other  class  of 
schools  can  reach  the  whole  people. 
And  yet,  the  people  must  be  educated, 
in  the  broadest  sense  of  that  term,  if  we 
would  preserve  the  perpetuity  of  our 
free  institutions. 

The  education  of  a  young  prince  or 
princess,  in  royal  governments,  is  re- 
garded as  an  important  matter,  aifecting, 
as  it  must,  the  welfare  of  nations.  The 
selection  of  a  proper  tutor  for  such  an 
heir  to  the  throne  always  excites  a  deep 
interest  and  solicitude  throughout  the 
kingdom  or  empire.  But  we  are  a  na- 
tion of  sovereigns,  and  our  children  all 
princes  of  a  future  generation.  The 
proper  training  of  these  children,  to  fit 
them  for  the  duties  of  citizenship,  for 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  257 

rulers  or  subjects,  as  the  case  may  be,  is, 
therefore,  a  matter  of  great  consequence. 

There  is  no  royal  blood  in  American 
veins  that  does  not  flow  alike  in  every 
rank  and  grade  of  society.  Any  child 
that  has  the  necessary  ability,  energy, 
and  culture,  as  he  grows  to  manhood, 
may  work  his  way  from  the  humblest 
cottage  in  the  land,  to  the  "  White 
House  "  at  Washington  ;  from  obscurity 
if>  the  highest  place  in  the  gift  of  the 
people.  Any  citizen  may  cast  a  vote 
that  will  change  the  policy,  or  seal  the 
fate,  of  the  nation.  Hence,  that  right 
of  franchise  is  a  dangerous  power  in  the 
hands  of  the  ignorant  and  vicious. 

Again,  the  importance  of  the  common 
school  is  seen  in  the  fact,  that  much  the 
larger  portion  of  our  children  can  attend 
no  higher  school.  These  must  gathe*- 
the  rudiments  of  education,  and  gradu- 
ate from  that  institution  which  is  located 


17 


258  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

in  their  own  neighborhood,  by  the  way- 
side, on  the  hilltop,  or  upon  some  bleak 
and  shadeless  corner  where  four  roads 
meet,  and  is  called,  by  way  of  distinction, 
the  "  District  School."  It  indicates, 
therefore,  an  enlightened  patriotism,  and 
a  broad  philanthropy  to  seek  to  elevate 
the  standard  of  our  public  schools.  In- 
deed, these  should  be  the  best  schools  in 
the  town,  county,  or  State.  And  how 
shall  this  object  be  secured  ?  I  answer.; 
special  care  must  be  taken  to  provide 
better  schoolhouses,  with  better  furni- 
ture and  more  apparatus,  and  teachers 
who  have  received  more  culture  and  more 
professional  training,  and  are  imbued 
with  the  spirit  and  enthusiasm  of  earnest 
workers.  Parents  must  feel  more  inter- 
est in  the  welfare  and  improvement  of 
the  common  school,  and  co-operate  more 
thoroughly  in  the  measures  necessary 
for  its  success  j  and  pupils  must  become 


COMMON  SCHOOLS.  259 

more  docile,  obedient,  prompt,  punctual, 
and  faithful  in  the  discharge  of  their  du- 
ties. Then  shall  we  find  in  our  families 
and  in  our  community  better  sons  and 
daughters,  kinder  brothers  and  sisters, 
truer  friends,  nobler  patriots,  more 
virtuous,  more  devoted,  more  faithful 
servants  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ. 


VI. 

ETJLES  FOE  THE  DIVISIBILITY  OF  NUMBERS. 

1.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  2  when 
its  right-hand  digit  is  even  qr  a  cipher. 

2.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  3  when 
the  sum  of  its  digits  is  divisible  by  3. 

3.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  4  when 
the  number  expressed  by  the  two  right- 
hand  digits  is  divisible  by  4. 

Explanation.  That  part  of  a  number 
is  divisible  by  4  which  terminates  in  two 
ciphers  :  for  4  is  a  factor  of  100.  Since, 
then,  both  parts  taken  separately  are  di- 
visible by  4,  the  number  is  also. 

4.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  5  when 
the  right-hand  digit  is  5  or  a  cipher. 


260 


DIVISIBILITY  OF  NUMBERS.  261 

Explanation.  That  part  of  a  number 
is  divisible  by  5  which  terminates  in  a 
cipher :  for  five  is  a  factor  of  10.  Since, 
then,  both  parts  taken  separately  are  di- 
visible by  5,  the  number  is  also. 

5.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  6  when 
the  sum  of  its  digits  is  divisible  by  3, 
and  the  right-hand  digit  is  even. 

6.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  8  when 
the  number  expressed  by  its  three  right- 
hand  digits  is  divisible  by  8. 

Explanation.  That  part  of  a  number 
is  divisible  by  8  which  terminates  in 
three  ciphers  :  for  8  is  a  factor  of  1000. 
Since,  then,  both  parts  taken  separately 
are  divisible  by  8,  the  number  is  also. 

7.  Cases   3d  and    6th   are   particular 
examples  of  a  general  law,  viz. :  — 

Any  number  is  divisible  by  2n  when 
the  number  expressed  by  (n)  right  hand- 
digits  is  divisible  by  2n  . 

Explanation.     That  part  of  a  number 


262  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

is  divisible  by  2n  which  terminates  in 
(n)  ciphers  :  for  2n  is  a  factor  of  1  with 
(n)  ciphers  annexed.  Since,  then,  both 
parts  taken  separately  are  divisible  by 
2n,  the  number  is  also. 

8.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  9  when 
the  sum  of  the  digits  is  divisible  by  9. 

Explanation.  Every  number  is  com- 
posed of  a  certain  number  of  9's  plus  the 
sum  of  the  digits.  Thus,  7245=7000+ 
200  +40+5  =  7(999+1)  +  2  (99+1)  +4 
(9+l)+5  =  7.999+7+2.99+2+4.9+4+ 
5=7.999  +2.99  +  4.9  +  7  +  2  +  4  +  5  =. 
The  part  composed  of  a  certain  number 
of  9's  is  divisible  by  9.  Hence,  if  the 
sum  of  the  digits  is  divisible  by  9, 
both  parts  taken  separately  are  divisi- 
ble by  9 ;  hence  the  number  is  divisible 
by  9.  It  follows  also  that  any  num- 
ber divided  by  9  will  give  the  same  re- 
mainder as  the  sum  of  the  digits  di- 
vided by  9.  Upon  this  property  of  the 


DIVISIBILITY  OF  NUMBERS.  2G3 

9  depends  one  of  the  methods  of  proving 
the  operation  in  the  four  fundamental 
rules. 

Case  2d  depends  upon  the  principle  in 
case  8th. 

9.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  11  when 
the  sum  of  the  digits  in  the  odd  places 
equals  the  sum  of  the  digits  in  the  even 
places,  or  when  the  difference  of  these 
sums  is  some  multiple  of  11. 

Explanation.  Every  number  is  com- 
posed of  a  certain  number  of  ll's  plus  or 
minus  the  difference  between  the  sum  of 
the  digits  in  the  odd  places  subtracted 
from  the  sum  of  the  digits  in  the  even 
places. 

Thus,  2948  =  2000  +  900  4-40  +  8= 
2.(1001— 1  )+9(99+l)  +4(11— l)+8= 
2.  1001  —  2  +  9.99  +9  +  4.11  —4+  8  = 
2.  1001  +  9.99  +  4.11  —  2+9  —  4+8. 
Hence,  the  part  composed  of  a  certain 
number  of  ll's  is  divisible  by  11.  Since 


264  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

the  other  part  is  zero  or  some  multiple 
of  11,  it  is  divisible  by  11.  Therefore, 
since  both  parts  taken  separately  are  di- 
visible by  11,  the  number  is  also. 

10.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  2,  3, 
6,  9,  and  18  when  the  sum  of  its  digits 
is  divisible  by  9  and  the  right-hand  digit 
is  even. 

11.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  3,  5,  9, 
15,  and  45,  when  the  sum  of  its  digits  is 
divisible  by  9  and  its  right-hand  digit  is 
a  5  or  a  cipher. 

12.  Any  number  is  divisible  by  2,  11, 
and  22  when  the  sum  of  its  digits  in  the 
odd  places  equals  the  sum  of  its  digits  in 
the  even  places,  or  when  the  difference  of 
these  sums  is  some  multiple  of  11,  and 
the  right-hand  digit  is  even. 

The  rule  which  applies  to  the  numbers 
7  and  13  is  too  complicated  to  be  of 
much  practical  use  j  hence  it  is  omitted. 


ORIGIN  OF  SIGNS.  265 


THE   ORIGIN   OF    ARITHMETICAL    SIGNS. 

1.  The  sign  of  addition,  called  plus,  is 
derived  from  the   initial  letter  of  the 

word  plus.     Thus,  ff*  ft  «X  ~K  eacn  time 
more  carelessly  written. 

2.  The  sign  of  subtraction,  called  mi- 
nus, was  derived  from  the  word  minus. 
Minus  was  contracted   into  the   letters 


m  n  s  with  a  horizontal  line  drawn 
above  them  to  denote  contraction.  Then 
the  letters  m  n  s  were  omitted,  which 
left  the  short  horizontal  line  [ — ]. 

3.  The  sign  of  multiplication  was  ob- 
tained by  changing  the  sign  of  addition 
into    the   letter   X.     This   change   was 
made  because  multiplication  is  the  short 
way  of  performing  many  additions. 

4.  The  sign  of  division    (a  short  line 
between  two  dots  -^-)  was  employed  to 
save  room  on  the  printed  page,  and  pre- 


266  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

serve  its  regularity.  The  dividend  was 
written  at  the  left  of  the  sign,  and  the 
divisor  at  the  right,  and  a  dot  was  writ- 
ten in  the  places  of  the  dividend  and 
divisor.  Thus  8-r-4. 

5.  The  radical  sign  was  derived  from 
the  letter  r,  the  initial  letter  of  radix. 
Thus  26  or  v/6. 

6.  The  sign  of  equality    (two   short 
horizontal  parallel  lines)  was  first  used 
by   Roberte  Recorde,  physician,   in   his 
"Whetstone  of  Witte,"  published  in!557. 
He  gives  his  reason,  in  his  own  quaint 
manner,  in  the  following  words  :  "  And 
to  avoide  the  tediouse  repetition  of  these 
woordes,  is  equalle  to,  I  will  sette,  as  I 
doe  often  in  woorkeuse,  a  paire  of  paral- 
leles   or   Gemowe  lines  of  one  lengthe 
thus  =,  because  noe  2  thynges  can  be 
more  equalle." 


PROPERTIES  OF  NUMBERS.  267 

PROPERTIES*  OF    NUMBERS. 

1.  Every  perfect  square  number  ter- 
minates in  1,  4,  5,  6,  9,  or  two  00. 

2.  A  perfect  cube  terminates  in  1,  2, 
3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  or  in  a  number  of 
ciphers  which  is  divisible  by  3. 

3.  The  fifth  power  of  any  one  of  the 
9  digits  terminates  in  the  digit  itself. 

4.  The  fourth  power  of  a  number  ter- 
minates in  1,  6,  5,  or  in  a  number  of 
ciphers  divisible  by  4. 

5.  A  perfect  number  is  one  which  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  all  its  aliquot  parts. 
Thus   6   is   a  perfect  number  because 
1+2+3=6.     There  are  only  10  perfect 
numbers  known.     6,  28,  496,  8128. 

6.  Two  numbers  are  said  to  be  amica- 
ble if  each  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the 
aliquot  parts  of  the  other.      Thus   220 
and  284  are  amicable  numbers,  220=1 
+2+4+71+142,  which  are  the  aliquot 


268  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

parts  of  284;  and  284=1+2+4+5+10 
+  11+20+22+44+55+110  which  are 
the  aliquot  parts  of  220.  There  are  on- 
ly 6  amicable  numbers  at  present  known 

220  )  -I  „!  •„  .     17296  I  O  J  •-.  .      9363583  j  OJ  •_ 

281  \  ->-fel  pair ,  18416 1  Ziti  pair  ,  9437056  \  oa  pair. 
There  are  many  other  properties  pe- 
culiar to  different  numbers  as  they  sub- 
serve different  purposes. 

ARITHMETICAL    CURIOSITIES. 

1.  To  obtain   a  product  which   shall 
consist  of  either  of  the  nine  digits  only. 
Multiply  the  number  "1  2345679 
by  as  many   times  the  right-hand  digit 
as  is  indicated  by  the  digit  which  is  to 
compose  the  product.     Thus,  if  a  pro- 
duct is  sought  which  shall  consist  of  the 
digit  6,  multiply  the  digits  123456 
7  9  x  6  X  9=666666666. 

2.  To  obtain  the  sum  of  numbers  by 
subtraction.     Take  any  number  greater 


ARITHMETICAL  CURIOSITIES.  269 

than  the  sum  of  the  numbers  whose 
amount  is  sought,  and  from  this  supposed 
number  subtract,  in  succession,  each  of 
the  given  numbers.  Subtract  the  final 
remainder  from  the  number  first  sup- 
posed, and  the  result  will  be  the  sum 
sought.  Thus  if  the  sum  of  7+6+8+3 
is  sought.  Suppose  30  from  30 ;  sub- 
stract  7,  and  from  the  remainder  take  6, 
and  so  proceed.  Thus 
30 
7 

23 
6 

17 

8 

9 
3 

6 
30  —  6  =  24  =  7  +  6+8  +  3. 


270  TEACHER'S  MANUAL. 

3.  To  obtain  the  difference  between 
two  numbers  by  addition  and  multipli- 
cation. Multiply  the  subtrahend  by  9, 
and  under  the  minuend  write  the  pro- 
duct. Add  the  figures  in  the  minuend 
to  the  one  under  it  in  the  subtrahend, 
and  to  this  amount  add  each  figure  at 
the  right  in  the  subtrahend,  and  carry 
as  in  addition, 

Kequired  the  difference  between  89643 

and  46375 

89643 

46375.9=417375 


43268 

5+3=8,  0  to  carry+4+7+5=16 ;  1  to 
carry+6+3+7+5=22  ;  2  to  carry  +9+ 
7-1-3+ 7+5=33;  3  to  carry  +8+1+7+3 
+7+5=44.  But,  as  the  4  falls  under 
the  left-hand  digit  of  the  minuend,  we 
stop  at  the  left-hand  digit  of  the  minu- 
end, and  we  find  the  remainder  to  be 
43268. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

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This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


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PR  2  9 1959 

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APR  S      <• 
OCT  2  3  1962 


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SUBJECT  TO  FINE  IF 

EuUCATiOHi 


NOT  RETURNED 

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